RAMMARS. 


Adam^^s  ^ $0  60 

Arnold’s  First  Gre^  Book  (J.  A.  Spencer) 87 

Prose  Composition  (J.  A.  Spencer) • • • 1 

Boisfe’s/ Exercises  in  G^e^  Pn>e^ Composition. . . 


Greek  Lessons, 

_ V Greek  Tables 

Hadley  and  Allen’s  Greek  Grammar.  Revised  Edition 1 50 

Hadley’s  Greek  Grammar.  Old  Edition 1 40 

Elements  of  Greek  Grammar 1 05 

Greek  Verbs — 21 

Harkness’s  First  Greek  Book.  With  a Greek  Reader. 1 05 

Harper  and  Waters’*  Inductive^  Gr^ok  Method 1 00 

Keep’s  Greek  Lessons 1 20 

Kendrick’s  Greek  Ollendorff 1 22 

Kiiliner’s  Greek  Grammar  (Edwards  and  Taylor) 1 40 

Cowen’s  Greek  Reader 1 40 

Scarboreugh’s  First  Lessons  in  Greek 

[*i6l 


90 


Silber’s  Progressive  Lessons  in  Greek  $0  57 

Whiton’s  Three  Months’^ Preparation  for  Reading  Xenophon. . . 48 

WinchelPs  Elementary  Lessons  in  Greek  Syntax 54 


GREEK  TEXTS. 

Blake’s  Lexicon  of  the  First  Three  Books  of  Homer’s  Iliad..  1 00 

Boise’s  Xenophon’s  Anabasis.  Four  Books 1 08 

The  same.  Four  Books,  with  Lexicon 1 32 

Crosby’s  (Edipus  Tyrannus  of  Sophocles . . 1 05 

Crosby’s  Xenophon’s  Anabasis.  Complete,  with  Lexicon 1 6Q 

The  same.  Four  Books  and  Lexicon. 1 40 

Lexicon  to  Xenophon’s  Anabasis. . . . . *. **. 70 

Lexicon  and  Notes  tc^  Xenophon’s  Anabasis. . . vr-^^  90 

Harper’s  Xenophon’s  Anabasis.  \m. press.). . 

Johnson’s  (H.  C.)  Homer’s  Iliad.  Three  Boolt^Vith  Notes. . . 112 

The  same.  Three  Books,  with  Note^^)^  Lexicon 1 32 

Johnson’s  _'(H.  M.),  Sele<itions  frol^ijlfe^odptiis 1 05 

Owen’s  Homer’s  Iliad I* 1 40 

Acts  of  the  Apostles.  With  Lexicon..  1 22 

Homer’s  Odyssey . . . .^. 1 40 

Thucydides.  With  Map 1 75 

Xenophon’s  Cyropaedia 1 75 

Robbins’s  (R.  D.  C.)  Xenophon’s  Memorabilia 1 40 

Smead’s  Demosthenes’  Philippics.  With  Notes 1 05 

Antigone  of  Sophocles.  With  Notes 1 22 

Tyler’s  (V^*^.),J?lato’s  Apology  and  Crito 1 05 

Gesenius’s  Hebrew  Grammar 2 10 


LATIN  FIRST  BOOKS  AND  GRAMMARS. 


Arnold’s  First  and  Second  Latin  Book 87 

Latin  Prose  Composition 87 

[*17]  ^ r , 


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OF  THE 

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Of  ILLI  NOIS 


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LATIN  GRImMAR 


SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 


BY 


ALBERT  HARKNESS,  Ph.  D.,  LL.I^., 

PROFESSOR  IN  BROWN  UNIVERSITY. 


REVISED  STANDARD  EDITION 


NEW  YORK  CINCINNATI  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY. 

FROM  THE  PRESS  OP 

D.  APPLETON  & COMPANY. 


Copyright,  1864,  1874,  1881, 

By  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY» 


475 

IS8\ 


PEE  FAO  E 

TO  THE  REVISED  EDITION, 


The  last  quarter  of  a century  has  revealed  many  im* 
portant  facts  in  the  development  of  language.  During 
this  period  philological  research  has  thrown  new  light 
upon  Latin  forms  and  inflections,  upon  the  laws  of  pho- 
netic change,  upon  the  use  of  cases,  moods,  and  tenses, 
and  upon  the  origin  and  history  of  numerous  construc- 
tions. The  student  of  Latin  grammar  is  now  entitled  to 
the  full  benefit  of  the  important  practical  results  which 
these  labors  in  the  field  of  linguistic  study  have  brought 
within  the  proper  sphere  of  the  school.  In  securing  this 
advantage,  however,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  divert  the 
attention  of  the  learner  from  the  one  object  before  him 
— the  attainment  of  a full  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
language. 

The  volume  now  offered  to  the  public  has  been  pre- 
pared in  view  of  these  facts.  It  is  the  result  of  a thor- 
ough and  complete  revision  of  the  author’s  Latin  Gram- 
mar published  in  1864.  To  a large  extent,  indeed,  it  is 
a new  and  independent  work ; yet  the  paradigms,  rules 
of  construction,  and  in  general  all  parts  intended  for 
recitation,  have  been  only  slightly  changed.  The  aim  of 
the  work  in  its  present  form  is  threefold. 

1.  It  is  designed  to  present  a clear,  simple,  and  con- 
venient outline  of  Latin  grammar  for  the  beginner.  It 


IV 


PREFACE. 


accordingly  contains,  in  large  type,  a systematic  arrange- 
ment  of  the  leading  facts  and  laws  of  the  language,  ex- 
hibiting not  only  grammatical  forms  and  constructions, 
but  also  those  vital  principles  which  underlie,  control, 
and  explain  them.  The  laws  of  construction  are  put  in 
the  form  of  definite  rules,  and  illustrated  by  carefully 
selected  examples.  To  secure  convenience  of  reference, 
and  to  give  completeness  and  vividness  to  the  general 
outline,  these  rules,  after  having  been  separately  dis- 
cussed, are  collected  in  a body  at  the  close  of  the  Syntax. 
Topics  which  require  the  fullest  illustration  are  first  pre- 
sented in  their  completeness  in  general  outline,  before 
the  separate  points  are  explained  in  detail.  Thus  a single 
page  often  foreshadows  the  leading  features  of  an  ex- 
tended discussion,  imparting,  it  is  believed,  a completeness 
and  vividness  to  the  impression  of  the  learner  impossible 
under  any  other  treatment.  - 

2.  It  is  intended  to  be  an  adequate  and  trustworthy 
grammar  for  the  advanced  student.  By  brevity  and  con- 
ciseness of  phraseology,  and  by  compactness  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  forms  and  topics,  an  ample  collection  of 
the  most  important  grammatical  facts,  intended  for  refer- 
ence, has  been  compressed  within  the  limits  of  a con- 
venient manual.  Care  has  been  taken  to  explain  and 
illustrate,  with  the  requisite  fullness,  all  difficult  and  in- 
tricate subjects.  The  Subjunctive  Mood  and  the  Indirect 
Discourse  have  received  special  attention. 

3.  In  a series  of  foot-notes  it  aims  to  bring  within  the 
reach  of  the  student  some  of  the  more  important  results 
of  recent  linguistic  research.  Brief  explanations  are 
given  of  the  w^orking  of  phonetic  laws,  of  the  nature  of 
inflection,  of  the  origin  of  special  idioms,  and  of  various 
facts  in  the  growth  of  language.  But  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  this  part  of  the  work  consists  in  the  abundant 


PREFACE, 


V 


references  which  are  made  to  some  of  the  latest  and  best 
authorities  upon  the  numerous  linguistic  questions  natur- 
ally suggested  by  the  study  of  Latin  grammar/ 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  indicate,  as  far  as 
practicable,  the  natural  quantity  of  vowels  before  two 
consonants  or  a double  consonant/ 

With  this  brief  statement  of  its  design  and  plan,  this 
volume  is  now  respectfully  committed  to  the  hands  of 
classical  teachers. 

In  conclusion,  the  author  is  happy  to  express  his 
grateful  acknowledgments  to  the  numerous  friends  who 
have  favored  him  with  valuable  suggestions. 

1 See  page  xv.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  an  acquaintance  with  the  authori- 
ties here  cited  is  by  no  means  to  be  regarded  as  an  indispensable  qualification  for  the 
work  of  classical  instruction.  The  references  are  intended  especially  for  those  who 
adopt  the  historical  method  in  the  study  of  language. 

2 See  page  4,  foot-note  4 ; also  page  9,  note  3. 

Brown  University,  Providence,  R.  L, 

Jubj.  1881, 


OOl^TEE'TS 


PART  FIRST. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Alphabet  1 

Roman  Method  of  Pronunciation 3 

English  Method  ..........  5 

Continental  Method  8 

Quantity  . . • . 8 

Accentuation 9 

Phonetic  Changes . . .10 

I.  Changes  in  Vowels . . 11 

II.  Changes  in  Consonants 16 


PART  SECOND. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER  I. 

NOUNS. 

Gender 21 

Person,  Number,  and  Case  . . 22 

Declension  ...........  23 

First  Declension 24 

Greek  Nouns 26 

Second  Declension  ..........  26 

Greek  Nouns  ..........  29 

Third  Declension  30 

Class  I.: — Consonant-Stems  .......  30 

Stems  in  a Labial 30 

Stems  in  a Dental  ........  31 

Stems  in  a Guttural . .32 

Stems  in  a Liquid  or  a Nasal  . . . . . . 33 

Stems  in  /S^  . . . . . . . . . .34 

Class  II. — LStems 35 

Special  Paradigms  .........  39 

Greek  Nouns 40 

Synopsis  of  the  Third  Declension 41 

Gender  .46 

Fourth  Declension  . . . . 48 


CONTENTS. 


viii 

' PAGE 

Fifth  Declension 60 

General  Table  of  Gender 61 

Declension  of  Compound  Nouns  . . ....  62 

Irregular  Nouns  . . . . . . . . . .63 

I.  Indeclinable  .........  63 

II.  Defective 63 

III.  Heteroclites 66 

IV.  Heterogeneous .66 

CHAPTER  II. 

ADJECTIVES. 

First  and  Second  Declensions 57 

Third  Declension • 69 

Irregular  Adjectives 62 

Comparison  ...........  63 

I.  Terminational  Comparison  63 

II.  Adverbial  Comparison 66 

Numerals 65 

CHAPTER  III. 

PRONOUNS. 

I.  Personal  Pronouns 70 

II.  Possessive  Pronouns  . 71 

HI.  Demonstrative  Pronouns 72 

IV.  Relative  Pronouns  .........  74 

V.  Interrogative  Pronouns  . . . . . . . .75 

VI.  Indefinite  Pronouns  ......  . 76 

Table  of  Correlatives 77 

CHAPTER  IV. 

VERBS. 

Voices,  Moods . 78 

Tenses  80 

Numbers,  Persons  .........  81 

Infinitive,  Gerund,  Supine  . . . . . , .81 

Participle 82 

Conjugation  ...........  82 

Paradigms  of  Verbs  ..........  84 

Comparative  View  of  Conjugations . 102 

Verbs  in  i5:  Conjugation  III.  .......  106 

Verbal  Infiections  . . . . . . . . . 108 

Synopsis  of  Conjugation  . . . . . . . . 110 

Deponent  Verbs 114 

Periphrastic  Conjugation 114 

Peculiarities  in  Conjugation 115 

Analysis  of  Verbal  Endings 117 

I.  Tense-signs 117 

II.  Mood-signs 117 

III.  Personal  Endings  , 118 


CONTENTS, 


IX 


PAGE 

Formation  of  Stems  . . . 119 

I.  Present  Stem .119 

II.  Perfect  Stems 121 

III.  Supine  Stem 122 

Classification  of  Verbs  . 122 

First  Conjugation  . . . . . . . . .122 

Second  Conjugation  . . . . . . . .124 

Third  Conjugation  . 12'7. 

Fourth  Conjugation 134 

Irregular  Verbs  ..........  135 

Defective , . . . . 141 

Impersonal 143 

CHAPTER  V. 

PAETICLES. 

A dverbs 144 

Table  of  Correlatives  147 

Comparison  ..........  149 

Prepositions 149 

Conjunctions  ..........  150 

Interjections . .152 

CHAPTER  VI. 

FOEMATION  OF  WOEDS. 

I.  Roots,  Stems,  Suffixes . . 152 

Primary  Suffixes  . . . . . . . .155 

II.  Derivation  of  Words 158 

Derivative  Nouns  . . . . . . . . .158 

Derivative  Adjectives 165 

Derivative  Verbs . ^ .169 

III.  Composition  of  Words 172 

Compound  Nouns  . . . . . . . .173 

Compound  Adjectives 174 

Compound  Verbs 175 


PART  THIRD. 

SYNTAX. 

CHAPTER  I. 

SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES. 

I.  Classification  of  Sentences 179 

II.  Elements  of  Sentences 182 


X 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SYNTAX  OF  NOUNS. 

PAGE 

I.  Agreement  of  Nouns  . 184 

Predicate  Nouns  . „ . . , . . . .184 

Appositives 185 

II.  General  View  of  Cases  . . . . . , .186 

III.  Nominative,  Vocative  ........  18^7 

I.  Nominative 18Y 

II.  Vocative  . 188 

IV.  Accusative  ..........  189 

I.  Direct  Object 189 

Two  Accusatives 191 

II.  Accusative  in  an  Adverbial  Sense  . . 193 

Accusative  of  Specification 193 

Accusative  of  Time  and  Space  . . . . 194 

Accusative  of  Limit 195 

III.  Accusative  in  Exclamations  . . . . 196 

V.  Dative ....  196 

Dative  with  Verbs — Indirect  Object  ....  197 

Dative  with  Special  Verbs 199 

Dative  with  Compounds 201 

Dative  of  Possessor 202 

Dative  of  Apparent  Agent 202 

Ethical  Dative  203 

Two  Datives  ........  204 

Dative  with  Adjectives .......  204 

Dative  with  Nouns  and  Adverbs  ....  205 

VI.  Genitive 206 

Genitive  with  Nouns 206 

Genitive  with  A.djectives  . . . . . .210 

Predicate  Genitive 212 

Genitive  with  Special  Verbs  . . . . . .213 

Accusative  and  Genitive 215 

VII.  Ablative 217 

I.  Ablative  Proper 218 

Ablative  of  Place  from  which 218 

Ablative  of  Separation,  Source,  Cause  . . . 218 

Ablative  with  Comparatives 222 

II.  Instrumental  Ablative 223 

Ablative  of  Accompaniment  .....  223 

Ablative  of  Means 224 

Ablative  in  Special  Constructions  ....  225 

Ablative  of  Price 226 

Ablative  of  Difference  ......  226 

Ablative  of  Specification  .....  227 

III.  Locative  Ablative 227 

Ablative  of  Place 227 

Ablative  of  Time 229 

Ablative  Absolute.  231 

VIII.  Oases  with  Prepositions  232 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  III. 

SYNTAX  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

Agreement  of  Adjectives  ...... 

Use  of  Adjectives 

CHAPTER  lY. 

SYNTAX  OF  PE0NUUN3. 

Agreement  of  Pronouns 

Use  of  Pronouns c . 

Personal,  Possessive 

Reflexive  ...... 

Demonstrative  . 

Relative  ......... 

Interrogative 

Indefinite 

CHAPTER  V. 

SYNTAX  OF  VERBS. 

I.  Agreement  of  Yerbs — Use  of  Yoices  . 

II.  Indicative  and  its  Tenses  ..... 

Tenses  of  Indicative 

Use  of  Indicative  ...... 

III.  General  Yiew  of  the  Subjunctive  and  its  Tenses 
lY.  Subjunctive  in  Principal  Clauses  .... 

Subjunctive  of  Desire 

Potential  Subjunctive  ...... 

Y.  Imperative  and  its  Tenses 

YI.  Moods  in  Subordinate  Clauses  .... 

I.  Tenses  of  Subjunctive  in  Subordinate  Clauses 

II.  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Purpose 

III.  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Result 
lY.  Moods  in  Conditional  Sentences  . 

Y.  Moods  in  Concessive  Clauses 
YI.  Moods  in  Causal  Clauses  .... 

YII.  Moods  in  Temporal  Clauses 
YIII.  Indirect  Discourse  ..... 

Moods  and  Tenses  in  Indirect  Discourse 
Persons  and  Pronouns  in  Indirect  Discourse 
Conditional  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse 
Indirect  Clauses  . . . . . 

VIL  Infinitive — Substantive  Clauses  .... 

I.  Infinitive  ....... 

Infinitive  with  Yerbs  . . . c 

Accusative  and  Infinitive  with  Yerbs 
Subject  of  Infinitive  .... 

Tenses  of  Infinitive  . . . 

Infinitive  in  Special  Constructions 
II.  Substantive  Clauses  ^ . 


xi 

PAGE 

239 

241 

244 

246 

246 

247 

248 

251 

252 

252 

254 

257 

257 

262 

264 

265 

265 

266 

268 

269 

269 

273 

276 

280 

287 

289 

291 

296 

296 

299 

299 

301 

306 

306 

306 

308 

310 

311 

313 

314 


CONTENTS. 


xii 

PAOB 

V"!!!.  Gerunds,  Gerundives,  Supines,  and  Participles  , . . 814 

lo  Gerunds 814 

II.  Gerundives  ........  816 

III.  Supines 81 V 

IV.  Participles 318 

CHAPTER  YL 

SYNTAX  OF  PAETICLES. 

Adverbs  ....  ....  820 

Conjunctions  .......  321 

Interjections  324 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Rules  of  Syntax  . . . . , - . 324 

CHAPTER  Yin. 

AEEANGEMENT  OF  WOED8  AND  CLAUSES. 

Arrangement  of  Words  . . . . c . . . 883 

Arrangement  of  Clauses  .....  836 


PART  FOURTH. 

PKOSODY. 

CHAPTER  I. 

QUANTITY. 

I.  General  Rules  of  Quantity 338 

II.  Quantity  in  Final  Syllables 339 

III.  Quantity  in  Increments  .....  . . 342 

Increments  of  Declension  .......  342 

Increments  of  Conjugation  . . . . ^ . 344 

lY.  Quantity  of  Derivative  Endings 844 

Y.  Quantity  of  Stem-Syllables  ....  . . 346 

CHAPTER  II. 

VEESIFIC  ATION. 

I.  General  View  of  the  Subject . 849 

Feet  ...........  350 

Yerses  .........  351 

Figures  of  Prosody  ...  ...  358 


CONTENTS, 


xiii 

PAGE 

II  Varieties  of  Verse ...  354 

I.  Dactylic  Hexameter  . . „ . , . .864 

II.  Other  Dactylic  Verses  .....  368 

III.  Trochaic  Verse 359 

IV.  lambic  Verse . 360 

V.  Ionic  Verse  .....  ...  361 

VI.  Logaoedic  Verse 362 

III  Versification  of  the  Principal  Latin  Poets  . . . . .364 

Vergil,  Juvenal,  Ovid,  Horace  ......  364 

Lyric  Metres  of  Horace 364 

Index  to  Lyric  Metres  of  Horace 368 

Catullus,  Martial,  Seneca,  Plautus,  Terence  , . .368 


APPENDIX. 

I.  Figures  of  Speech 370 

II.  Latin  Language  and  Literature 374 

III.  Roman  Calendar . 376 

IV.  Roman  Money,  Weights,  and  Measures  .....  378 

VL  Roman  Names 380 

Abbreviations 380 

VI.  Vowels  before  Two  Consonants  or  a Double  Consonant  . 381 


Index  of  Verbs  . , . • . . . , . 883 

General  Index  . 390 


‘ - • 


p ■ 


/ 


TITLES  OF  WOEKS  CITED 

£N  THE  FOOT-NOTES  OF  THIS  GRAMMAR, 


Acta  Societatis  Philologae  Lipsiensis.  Lipsiae,  1870-1888. 

Allen,  F.  D.  Remnants  of  Early  Latin,  Boston,  1880. 

Bopp,  F.  Vergleichende  Grammatih,  Berlin,  3d  ed.,  1870. 

Bouterwek,  K.,  und  Tegge,  Aug.  Die  altsjprachliche  Orthoepie  und  die 
Praxis.  Berlin,  1878. 

Braitbach,  W.  Hulfshuchlein  fur  lateinische  Rechtschreihung.  Leipzig,  3d 
ed.,  1887. 

Brambach,  W.  Die  Eeugestaltung  der  lateinischen  Orthographie.  Leipzig, 
1868. 

Brugmann,  K.  Grundriss  der  vergleichenden  Grammatik.  Strassbnrg,  1886. 

Bucheler,  F.  Grundriss  der  lateinischen  Declination.  Leipzig,  1866;  Bonn, 
1879. 

BtoGEE,  C.  Die  lateinische  Quantitdt  in  positionslangen  Silhen.  Strassbnrg, 

' 1881. 

Christ,  W.  Metrik  der  Griechen  und  Romer.  Leipzig,  1874. 

CcRSSEN,  W.  Aussprache^  Vocalismus.^  und  Betonung  der  lateinischen 
Sprache.  Leipzig,  2d  ed.,  1868. 

CoRssEN,  W.  Kritische  Beitrdge.^  Leipzig,  1863. 

Curtius,  G.  Zur  Chronologie  der  indo-germanisclien  Sprachforschung.  Leip- 
zig, 2d  ed.,  1873. 

Curtius,  G.  Das  Verhum  der  griechischen  Sprache.  Leipzig,  2d  ed.,  1880. 

Delbruck,  B.  AUativ.,  Localis.,  Instrumentalis.  Berlin,  1867. 

Delbruck,  B,  Der  Gehrauch  des  Conjunctivs  und  Optatirs  im  Sanskrit  und 
Griechischen.  Halle,  1871. 

=^Delbruck,  B.  Einleitung  in  das  Sprachstudium.  Leipzig,  1880. 

Draeger,  a.  Historische  Syntax  der  lateinischen  Sprache.  Leipzig,  2d  ed., 
1881. 

Ellis,  A.  J.  Quantitative  Ponunciation  of  Latin.  London,  1874. 

Foerster,  W.  Bestimmung  der  lateinischen  Quantitdt  aus  dem  Roman” 
ischen.  Eheinisches  Museum,  xxxiii.,  pp.  291-299.  Frankfurt  am  Main. 

Hartung,  J.  a.  Die  Casus.,  ihre  Bildung  und  Bedeutung.  Erlangen,  1831. 

Hoffmann,  E.  Die  Construction  der  lateinischen  Zeitpartikeln.  Wien,  1873. 

Holzweissig,  Fr.  Localistische  Casustheorie.  Leipzig,  1877. 

Hubschmann,  H.  Zur  Casuslehre.  Mlinchen,  1875. 

Jolly,  J.  Geschichte  des  Infinitivs  im  Indo-germanischen.  Mlincben,  1873. 

Kuhn,  A.  Zeitschrift  fur  vergleichende  Sprachforschung.  Berlin,  1851-1888. 


xvi 


TITLES  OE  WORKS  CITED. 


KtjHNER,  K.  Ausfuhrliche  Grammatik  der  lateinischen  Sprache,  Hannoveir, 
1879. 

Lubbeet,  E.  Die  Syntax  von  Quom.  Breslau,  1870. 

Marx,  A.  Die  AusspracJie  der  lateinischen  Vocale  in  positionslangen  Silhen. 
Berlin,  1883. 

Merguet,  H.  Lateinische  Formenbildung , Berlin,  1870. 

Meyer,  G.  Griechische  Grammatik.  Leipzig,  2ded.,  1886. 

Muller,  L.  Orthographiae  et  Prosodiae  Latinae  Summarium.  Lipsiae,  1878. 

Muller,  L.  De  Re  Metrica  Poetarum  Latinorum  libri  VII.  Lipsiae,  1861. 

Mullee,  Max.  The  Science  qf  Language.  New  York,  2d  ed.,  1868. 

Munro,  H.  a.  J.  The  Pronunciation  of  Latin.  Cambridge,  1874. 

Nagelsbach,  C.  F.  Lateinische  Stilistik.  Niirnberg,  6th  ed.,  1876. 

OsTHOFF,  H.  Zur  Geschichte  des  Perfects  im  Indo-germanischen.  Strassburg, 
1884. 

Fapillon,  T.  L.  a Manual  of  Comparative  Philology.  Oxford,  3d  ed.,  1887. 

Peile,  J.  Greek  and  Latin  Etymology.  London,  2d  ed.,  1872. 

Penka,  K.  Die  Nominalflexion  der  Indo-germanischen  Sprachen.  Wien, 
1878. 

pRisciANUS,  C.  Institutionum  Grammaticarum  libri  X VIII.  Lipsiae,  1855. 

Ramsay,  W.  Latin  Prosody.  London,  6th  ed.,  1887. 

Eitschl,  Fr.  Unsere  heutige  Aussprache  des  Latein.  Rheinisches  Museum, 
xxxi.,  pp.  481-492. 

Roby,  H.  J.  A Grammar  of  the  Latin  Language.  London,  2d  ed.,  1886. 

Rumpel,  Th.  Die  Casuslehre.  Halle,  4th  ed.,  1876. 

Schleicher,  Aug.  Compendium  der  vergleichenden  Grammatik.  Weimar, 
1866. 

Schmidt,  J.  H.  H.  Leitfaden  in  der  Rhythmik  und  Metrih  der  classischen 
Sprachen.  Leipzig,  1869.  A translation  by  Professor  White.  Boston, 
1878. 

Schmitz,  W.  Beitrdge  sur  lateinischen  Sprachkunde.  Leipsig,  1877. 

Scholl,  F.  Veterum  Grammaticorum  de  Accentu  Linguae  Latinae  Testimo- 
nia. Acta  Societatis  Philologae  Lipsiensis,  vi.,  pp.  71-215. 

Seelmann,  e.  Die  Aussprache  des  Latein.  Heilbronn,  1885. 

Sievers,  e.  Grundzuge  der  Phonetik.  Leipzig,  3d  ed.,  1885. 

Spengel,  a.  Plautus.^  Kritik.,  Prosodie.,  Metrik.  Gottingen,  1865. 

Stolz,  f.  Lateinische  Grammatik.  Handhuch  der  classischen  Altertums- 
wissenschaft  von  1.  Mulier.  Nordlingen,  1885. 

Transactions  of  the  American  Philological  Association,  Hartford,  1869-1888. 

Vanicek,  a.  Etymologisches  Worterbuch  der  lateinischen  Sprache.  Leipzig, 
1881. 

Vantcek,  a.  Griechisch-lateinisches  etymologisches  Worterbuch.  Leipzig,!  877. 

Whitney,  W.  L).  The  Life  and  Growth  of  Language.  New  York,  1875. 

WiGGERT,  J.  Studien  zur  lateinischen  Orthoepie.  Stargard,  1880. 

Wordsworth,  J.  Fragments  and  Specimens  of  Early  Latin,  Oxford,  1874, 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


1 .  Latin  Grammae  treats  of  the  principles  of  the  Latin 
language.  It  comprises  four  parts  : 

I.  Orthography,  which  treats  of  the  letters  and  sounds 
of  the  language. 

II . Etymology,  which  treats  of  the  classification,  infiec- 
tion,  and  derivation  of  words. 

III.  Syntax,  which  treats  of  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences. 

IV.  Prosody,  which  treats  of  quantity  and  versification. 


PART  FIRST. 

OETHOQEAPHY. 

ALPHABET. 

2.  The  Latin  alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English  with 
the  omission  of 


1 The  Romans  derived  their  alphabet  from  the  Greek  colony  at  Cumae.  In  its  origi- 
nal form  it  contained  twenty-one  letters : A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  H,  I,  K,  L,  M,  X,  O,  P, 
Q,  R,  8,  T,  TJ,  X,  Z.  C was  a modification  of  the  Greek  gamma,  and  F of  the  digam- 
ma. Q was  the  Greek  koppa,  which  early  disappeared  from  the  Greek  alphabet.  C had 
the  sound  afterward  denoted  by  g ; A,  the  sound  afterward  denoted  by  c.  Z early  dis- 
appeared from  the  Latin  alphabet,  but  was  subsequently  restored,  though  only  in  foreign 
words.  Throughout  the  classical  period  only  capital  letters  were  used.  On  the  Alphabet^ 
see  Whitney,  pp.  59-70:  Papillon,  pp  28-48;  Wordsworth,  pp.  5-10;  Roby,  I.,  pp.  21-62; 
Sievers,  pp.  24-108 ; Corssen,  I.,  pp.  1-S46 ; Kuhner,  I.,  pp.  35-49. 

2 


2 


ALPHABET. 


1.  ^ in  the  fourth  century  b.  o.  supplied  the  place  both  of  ^7and  of  G. 

2.  G^  introduced  in  the  third  century  b.  c.  , was  formed  from  C by  simply 
changing  the  lower  part  of  that  letter. 

3.  Even  in  the  classical  period  the  original  form  G was  retained  in  ah^ 
breviations  of  proper  names  beginning  with  G.  Thus  G.  stands  for  Gd/ius^ 
Gn.  for  Gnaeus.  See  649. 

4.  c/,  y,  modifications  of  /,  introduced  in  the  seventeenth  century  of  our 
era  to  distinguish  the  consonant  /,  ^ from  the  vowel  7,  are  rejected  by  many 
recent  editors,  but  retained  by  others. ^ 

5.  The  letters  u and  t;,  originally  designated  by  the  character  F,2  are  now 
used  in  the  best  editions,  the  former  as  a vowel,  the  latter  as  a consonant. 

6.  In  classical  Latin,  Tc  is  seldom  used,  and  y and  z occur  only  in  foreign 
words,  chiefly  in  those  derived  from  the  Greek. 

3.  Letters  are  divided  according  to  the  position  of  the 
vocal  organs  at  the  time  of  utterance  into  two  genera] 
classes,  vowels  and  consonants/  and  these  classes  are  again 
divided  into  various  subdivisions,  as  seen  in  the  following 

Classification  of  Letters. 

I.  VOWELS. 

1.  Open  vowel  ^ .....  a 

2.  Medial  vowels e o 

3.  Close  vowels® i y u 

1 Throughout  the  classical  period,  7,  used  both  as  a vowel  and  as  a consonant,  sup- 
plied the  place  of  7,  i and  7,  j.  As  practical  convenience  has,  however,  already  sanc- 
tioned the  use  of  u.  and  characters  unknown  to  the  ancient  Romans,  may  it  not  also 
justify  the  use  of  j in  educational  works,  especially  as  the  Romans  themselves  at- 
tempted to  find  a suitable  modification  of  7 to  designate  this  consonant? 

2 Originally  V,  used  both  as  a vowel  and  as  a consonant,  supplied  the  place  of  U,  u 
and  F t>ut  it  was  subsequently  modified  to  TJ. 

3 If  the  vocal  organs  are  sufficiently  open  to  allow  an  uninterrupted  flow  of  vocal 
sound,  a vowel  is  produced,  otherwise  a consonant ; but  the  least  open  vowels  are  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  the  most  open  consonants.  Thus  e,  sounded  fully  according  to  the 
ancient  pronunciation  as  ee,  is  a vowel ; but,  combined  with  a vowel  in  the  same  syllable, 
it  becomes  a consonant  with  the  sound  of  y ; e' -I  {a'-ee^  vowel),  e'-jus  {d'-yiis^  conso- 
nant,  almost  identical  in  sound  with  d'-ee-us). 

4 In  pronouncing  the  open  vowel  a as  in  father^  the  vocal  organs  are  fully  open.  By 
gradually  contracting  them  at  one  pffint  and  another  we  produce  in  succession  the  medial 
vowels,  the  close  vowels,  the  semivowels,  the  nasals,  the  aspirate,  the  fricatives,  and 
finally  the  mutes,  in  pronouncing  which  the  closure  of  the  vocal  organs  becomes  completo 

® 7*18  B.  medial  vowel  between  the  open  a and  the  close  -i,  o a medial  vowel  between 
the  open  a and  the  close  u;  i is  a palatal  vowel,  u a labial ; y was  introduced  from  the 
Greek.  The  vowel  scale,  here  presented  in  the  form  of  a triangle,  may  be  represented  as 
a line,  with  a in  the  middle,  with  i at  the  palatal  extreme,  and  with  u at  the  labial  extreme : 

i e a o u 


ROMAN  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION  3 


n.  CONSONANTS. 

Gutturals. 

Dentals- 

Labials. 

1.  Semivowels,  sonant 

. i or  j = y 

M = w 

2.  Nasals,  sonant 

. n ^ 

n 

m 

3.  Aspirate,  surd 

4.  Fricatives,  comprising 

1.  Liquids,,  sonant  . 

h 

l,r 

2.  Spirants,,  surd 

s 

f 

5.  Mutes,  comprising 
1.  Sonant  Mutes 

g 

d 

b 

2.  Su7'd  Mutes 

c,  k,  q 

t 

P 

Note  1. — Observe  that  the  consonants  are  divided. 

I.  According  to  the  organs  chiefly  employed  in  their  production,  into 

1.  Gutturals — throat  Utters^  also  called  Palatals ; 

2.  Dentals — Ueth  letters^  also  called  Linguals ; 

3.  Labials — lip  letters, 

II.  According  to  the  manner  in  which  they  are  uttered,  into 

1.  Sonants,  or  voiced  letters  ; 

2.  Surds,  or  voiceless  letters.'^ 

Note  2. — X — cs^^  and  z = are  double  consonants,  formed  by  the  union 
of  a mute  with  the  spirant  s, 

4.  Diphthongs  are  formed  by  the  union  of  two  vowels 
in  one  syllable. 

Note. — The  most  common  diphthongs  are  ue,  oe,  a?i,  and  eu,  Ei^  oi^ 
and  ui  are  rare.-* 

ROMAN  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION.® 

5.  Vowels. — The  vowel  sounds  are  the  following  : 

^ With  the  sound  of  n in  concord,,  linger.  It  occurs  before  gutturals  : congressus,, 
meeting. 

2 The  distinction  between  a sonant  and  a surd  will  be  appreciated  by  observing  the 
difference  between  the  sonant  & and  its  corresponding  surd  p in  such  words  as  pad. 
B is  vocalized,  p is  not. 

3 X often  represents  the  union  of  g and  s,  but  in  such  cases  g is  probably  first  assimi- 
lated to  c;  see  30,  33,  1. 

4 Proper  diphthongs  were  formed  originally  by  the  union  of  an  open  or  medial  vowel, 
a,  e,  or  0,  with  a close  vowel,  i or  as  ai,  ei,  oi,,  au,,  eu,,  ou.  An  improper  diphthong 
was  also  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  close  vowels,  as  ui.  For  the  weakening  of  these 
original  diphthongs,  see  33,  note. 

In  this  country  three  distinct  methods  are  recognized  in  the  pronunciation  of  Latin. 
They  are  generally  known  as  the  Roman,,  the  English,,  and  the  Continmtal  Methods. 
The  researches  of  Corssen  and  others  have  revealed  laws  of  phonetic  change  of  great 
value  in  tracing  the  history  of  Latin  words.  Accordingly,  whatever  method  of  pronun- 
ciation may  be  adopted  for  actual  use  in  the  class-room,  the  pupil  should  sooner  or 
later  be  made  familiar  with  the  leading  features  of  the  Eoman  Method,  which  is  at  least 
an  approximation  to  the  ancient  pronunciation  of  the  language. 


4 


ROMAN  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


Long. 

a like  d in  father : 

d'-ris} 

Shout. 

a like  a in  Cuba ; 

; 2 a!  -met. 

e “ 

e “ prey 

e'-dl. 

e “ 

e “ net: 

rd -get. 

i “ 

i “ machine; 

I’-rl. 

i “ 

i “ cigar: 

vi' -det. 

6 “ 

d “ old: 

o~rds. 

o “ 

0 “ obey: 

mo'  -net. 

u “ 

u “ rule 

u'-no. 

u “ 

u “ fall: 

su'-mus. 

1.  A short  vowel  in  a long  syllable  is  prpnounced  short;  sunt^^  u as  in 
su  -mus.  But  see  16,  note  2. 

2.  Y,  found  only  in  Greek  words,  is  in  sound  intermediate  between  the 
Latin  i and  similar  to  the  French  u and  the  German  u : Ny-sa. 

3.  I preceded  by  an  accented  a,  e,  <?,  or  y,  and  followed  by  another  vowel, 
is  a semivowel  with  the  sound  oi  y in  yet  {'ll)  \ A-cha-ia  (A-ka'-ya). 

4.  TJ  5 in  and  generally  in  gu  and  su  before  a vowel,  has  the  sound  of 
w : qul  (kwe),  tin' -qua  (lin'-gwa),  sua' -sit  (swii'-sit). 

6.  Diphthongs. — In  dipli thongs  each  vowel  retains  its 
OAvn  sound  : 

ae  (for  ai)  like  the  English  ay  (yes) : mm'-sae} 
au  like  ow  in  how  : cau'-sa. 

oe  (for  oi)  like  oi  in  coin : foe-dus. 

1.  Ei  as  in  veil^  eu  with  the  sounds  of  e and  u combined,  and  oi  — oe^ 
occur  in  a few  words : dein,"^  neu' -ter ^ proin, 

7.  Consonants. — Most  of  the  consonants  are  pro- 
nounced nearly  as  in  English,  but  the  following  require 
special  notice  : 

c like  k in  king:  ce'-les  (kay-lace),  ci-vl  (ke-we). 
g “ ^ “ get : 7'e'-gunt^  rd -gis^  ge'-nus. 

1 The  Latin  vowels  marked  with  the  sign  “ are  long  in  quantity.,  i.  e.,  in  the  dura- 
tion of  the  sound  (16);  those  not  marked  are  short  in  quantity  ; see  16,  note  3. 

2 Or  e like  d in  made,  I like  e in  m^,  and  u like  oo  in  moon. 

3 The  short  vowels  can  be  only  imperfectly  represented  by  English  equivalents.  In 
theory  they  have  the  same  sounds  as  the  corresponding  long  vowels,  but  occupy  only 
half  as  much  time  in  utterance. 

4 Observe  the  difference  between  the  length  or  quantity  of  the  vowel  and  the  Imgth 
or  quantity  of  the  syllable.  Here  the  vowel  u is  short,  but  the  syllable  sunt  is  long; 
se$  16, 1.  In  syllables  long  irrespective  of  the  length  of  the  vowels  contained  in  them,  it 
is  often  difficult  and  sometimes  absolutely  impossible  to  determine  the  natural  quanUty 
of  the  vowels ; but  it  is  thought  advisable  to  treat  vowels  as  short  in  all  situations  where 
there  are  not  good  reasons  for  believing  them  to  be  long. 

5 This  is  sometimes  called  the  parasitic  -a,  as  having  been  developed  in  many  in- 
stances by  the  preceding  consonant,  and  as  being  dependent  upon  it.  See  Papillon,  p 
50;  Peile,  p.  383;  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  69,  70,  and  86. 

® Combining  the  sounds  of  a and  i. 

When  pronounced  as  monosyllables  in  poetry  (608,  HI.) ; otherwise  as  dissyllables 
de'-in^  pro'-in. 


ENailSH  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION, 


5 


j like  y in  yet : ju'-stum  (yoo-stum),  ja'-cet. 

s “ s “ son:  sa -cer^  so' -ror^  A' -si-a. 

t “ ^ “ time : td'-tus^  dc'-ti-5. 

V “ “ we : va'-dum^  vi'-ci^  vi' -ti-um} 

Note.— Before  s and  t,  h has  the  sound  of  p : urhs,  sub^-ter,  pronounced  urps,  snj/‘ 

Ur."^  Cli  has  the  sound  of  Ic : cho'-rus  (ko'-rus). 

8.  Syllables. — In  dividing  words  into  syllables, 

1.  Make  as  many  syllables  as  there  are  vowels  and  diphthongs : mo' -re^ 
pcr-sud'  -de^  mmi-sae. 

2.  Join  to  each  vowel  as  many  of  the  consonants  which  precede  it — 
one  or  more — as  can  be  conveniently  pronounced  at  the  beginning  of  a 
word  or  syllable : ^ pd -ter ^ pa' -ires ^ ge  -ne-r\  do' -mi-nus^  no' -scit^  si' -stis^ 
clau'-stra^  men'-sa^  bel'-lum^  tem'-plum^  emp'-tus.  But — 

3.  Compound  words  must  be  separated  into  their  component  parts,  if 
the  first  of  these  parts  ends  in  a consonant : ab'-es^  ob-i'-re. 

ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATIONS 

9.  Vowels. — Vowels  generally  have  their  long  or  short 
English  sounds.  ^ 

10.  Long  Sounds. — Vowels  have  their  long  English 
sounds — a as  in  fate,  e in  mete,  i in  pine,  o in  note,  u in 
tube,  y in  type — in  the  following  situations  : 

1.  In  final  syllables  ending  in  a vowel : 

Ne,  si,  ser'-viy  ser'-vOy  cor'-nUy  mi! -sy, 

2.  In  all  syllables,  before  a vowel  or  diphthong  : 

De'-uSy  de-o'-rumy  de'-aCy  di-e'-iy  ni' -Jii-lum.^ 

1 There  is  some  uncertainty  in  regard  to  the  sound  of  v.  Corssen  gives  it  at  the 
beginning  of  a word  the  sound  of  the  English  in  all  other  situations  the  sound  of  w. 

2 On  Assimilation  in  Sound  \n  this  and  similar  cases,  see  p.  17,  foot-note  1. 

3 By  some  grammarians  any  combination  of  consonants  which  can  begin  either  a 
Latin  or  a Greek  word  is  always  joined  to  the  following  vowel,  as  o'-mniSy  i'-pse.  Eoby, 
on  the  contrary,  thinks  that  the  Romans  pronounced  with  each  vowel  as  many  of  the  fol- 
lowing consonants  as  could  be  readily  combined  with  it. 

Scholars  in  different  countries  generally  pronounce  Latin  substantially  as  they  pro- 
nounce their  own  languages.  Accordingly  in  England  and  in  this  country  the  English 
Method  has  in  general  prevailed,  though  of  late  the  Roman  pronunciation  has  gained 
favor  in  many  quarters. 

® These  sounds  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  are  somewhat  modified  by  the  consonants 
which  accompany  them.  Thus,  before  r,  when  jinaly  or  followed  by  another  consonant, 
e,  iy  and  u are  scarcely  distinguishable,  while  a and  o are  pronounced  as  in  faVy  for. 
Between  qu  and  dVy  or  rty  a approaches  the  sound  of  o : quar'tiiSy  as  in  quarter. 

® In  these  rules  no  account  is  taken  of  the  aspirate  h:  hence  the  first  i in  nihilum  is 
treated  as  a vowel  before  another  vowel ; for  the  same  reason,  chy  phy  and  th  are  treated 
as  single  mutes ; thus  th  in  Athos  and  Othrys. 


6 


ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


3.  In  penultimate’  syllables  before  a single  consonant, 
or  before  a mute  followed  by  a liquid  : 

Fa!-ier^  pa'-tres.,  ho-no'-ris,  A'-thos,  O'-thrys. 

4.  In  unaccented  syllables,  not  final,  before  a single  con- 
sonant, or  before  a mute  followed  by  a liquid  : 

Fo-lo'-riSj  cor'-po-rij  con'-su-Hs,  a-gric -o-la. 

1)  A unaccented.,  except  before  consonants  in  final  syllables  (11,  1),  has 
the  sound  of  a final  in  America : men'-sa^  a-cu'4us.,  a-ma'-mus!^ 

2)  I and  y unaccented,  in  any  syllable  except  the  first  and  last,  gener- 
ally have  the  short  sound : noh'-i-lis  (nob'-e-lis),  Am'-y-cus  (Am'-e-cus). 

3)  I preceded  by  an  accented  a,  e,  o,  or  y,  and  followed  by  another 
vowel,  is  a semivowel  ^ with  the  sound  of  y in  yet : A-cha'-ia  (A-ka'-ya), 
Pom-pe'-ius  (Pom-pe'-yus),  La-to'-ia  (La-to'-ya),  Har-py’-ia  (Har-py'-ya). 

4)  U has  the  short  sound  before  hi,  and  the  other  vowels  before  gl 
and  tl:  Puh-lic' -o-la,  Ag-la! -o-plion.  At' -las. 

6)  in  qu,  and  generally  in  gu  and  su  before  a vowel,  has  the  sound 
of  w : qui  (kwi),  qua  ; lin'-gua  (lin'-gwa),  lin'-guis  ; sua'-de-o  (swa'-de-o). 

6)  Compound  Wokds. — ^When  the  first  part  of  a compound  is  entire 
and  ends  in  a consonant,  any  vowel  before  such  consonant  has  generally 
the  sho7't  sound : a in  ah'-es,  e in  red' -it,  i in  in' -it,  o in  oh' -it,  prod'  -est.  But 
those  final  syllables  which,  as  exceptions,  have  the  long  sound  before  a 
consonant  (11, 1),  retain  that  sound  in  compounds:  post' -quam,  hos'-ce. 
E'-ti-am  and  quo' -ni-am  are  generally  pronounced  as  simple  words.^ 

11.  Short  Soukds. — Vowels  have  their  short  English 
sounds — a as  in  fat,  e in  met,  i in  pin,  o in  not,  u in  tub, 
y in  myth — in  the  following  situations  : 

1.  In  final  syllables  ending  in  a consonant : 

A'-mat,  a! -met,  rex' -it,  sol,  consul.  Te' -thys ; except  post,  es  final,  and  os 
final  in  plural  cases:  res,  di'-es,  hos,  a'gros. 

2.  In  all  syllables  before  x,  or  any  two  consonants  except 
a mute  followed  by  a liquid  (10,  3 and  4)  : 

Rex' -it,  hel'-lum,  rex-d -runt,  hel-lo' -rum. 

1 Penultimate,  the  last  syllable  but  one. 

2 Some  give  the  same  sound  to  a final  in  monosyllables:  da,  qua;  while  others  give 
it  the  long  sound  according  to  10, 1. 

3 Sometimes  written  j. 

4 This  is  sometimes  called  the  parasitic  u,  as  having  been  developed  in  many  instances 
by  the  preceding  consonant  and  as  being  dependent  upon  it.  See  Papillon,  p.  50;  Peilo, 
p.  383 ; Corssen,  I.,  pp.  69,  TO,  and  85. 

' Etiam  is  compounded  of  et  and  jam;  quoniam,  of  quom  = quum,  cum,  and  jam 


ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


7 


3.  In  all  accented  syllables,  not  penultimate,  before  one 
or  more  consonants : 

Dorn! -i-nus.,  pat' -ri-hus.  But — 

1)  A,  e,  or  o before  a single  consonant  (or  a mute  and  a liquid),  fol- 
lowed by  % or  y before  another  vowel,  has  the  long  sound:  a'-ci-es. 
a'-cri-a.,  m^-re-o^  do'-ce-o. 

2)  U,  in  any  syllable  not  final,  before  a single  consonant  or  a mute  and 
a liquid,  except  6^,  has  the  long  sound : Pu’-ni-cus^  sa-lu' -hri-tas. 

3)  Compounds ; see  10,  6). 

12.  Diphthokgs. — Diphthongs  are  pronounced  as  fol- 
lows : 

Aelikee;  Cae' sar^  Baed’ -a-lus}  I Au  as  in  author:  av! -rum. 

Oelikee;  Oe'-ta.,  Oed'-i-pus}  \ Eu  as  in  neuter:  neu' -ter. 

1.  Ei  and  oi  are  seldom  diphthongs,  but  when  so  used  they  are  pro- 
nounced as  in  height.^  coin : hei.,  proin  ; see  Synaeresis,  608,  III. 

2.  27^,  as  a diphthong  with  the  long  sound  of  occurs  in  cm,  Tiu%  huie, 

13.  CoKSOKANTS. — The  consonants  are  pronounced  in 

general  as  in  English.  Thus — 

I.  C and  G are  soft  (like  s and  f)  before  e,  i,  y,  ae^  and  oe,  and  hard  in 
other  situations : ce' -do  (se'-do),  ci' -vis.,  Cy’-rus.,  cad  -do.,  cod  -pi.,  a'  -ge  (a'-je), 
a'-gi;  ca'-do  (ka'-do),  co' -go.,  cum.,  Ga'-des.  But 

1.  (7  has  the  sound  of  sh — 

1)  Before  i preceded  by  an  accented  syllable  and  followed  by  a vowel: 
so'-ci-us  (so'-she-us) ; 

2)  Before  eu  and  yo  preceded  by  an  accented  syllable : ca^-du' -ce-us  (ca- 
du'-she-us),  Sid-y-on  (Sish'-y-on). 

2.  Ch  is  hard  like  k : cho'-rus  (ko'-rus).  Chi' -os  (Ki'-os). 

3.  G-  has  the  soft  sound  before  g soft : ag'-ger. 

II.  S,  T,  and  X are  generally  pronounced  as  in  the  English  words  son, 
time.,  expect : sa'-cer.,  ti'-mor.,  rex'-i  {rek'-si).  But — 

I.  8.,  T.,  and  X are  aspirated  before  i preceded  by  an  accented  syllable  and 
followed  by  a vowel — s and  t taking  the  sound  of  sA,  and  x that  of  ksh : AV- 
si-um  (Al'-she-um),  ar'-ti-um  (ar'-=she-um),  anx'-i-us  (ank'-she-us).  But 

1)  Closes  the  aspirate — (1)  afters,  t.  or  x:  Os'-ti-a.^  At'-U-us,  mix'-ti-o;  (2)  in  old 
infinitives  in  ier:  flec'-ti-er;  (8)  generally  in  proper  names  in  tion  {tyon):  Phi-lis'- 
U-on.,  Am-phic' -ty-on. 


1 The  diphthong  has  the  long  sound  in  Cae'-sar  and  Oe'-ta^  according  to  10,  3,  but 
the  short  sound  in  Daed'-a-lus  (Ded'-a-lus)  and  Oed'-i-pus  (Ed'-i-pus),  according  to 
11,  3,  as  e would  be  thus  pronounced  in  the  same  situations. 


8 CONTmENTAL  METHOD  OF  HRONUHCIATIOH 

2.  S is  pronounced  like  z — 

1)  At  the  end  of  a word,  after  e,  au^  &,  w,  n,  r : spes,  praes^  lam^  urbs^  hi' -mis. 
mons^  pars  ; 

2)  In  a few  words  after  the  analogy  of  the  corresponding  English  words  : Cae'-sar^ 
Caesar;  cau'-sa.,  cause;  mu'-sa.,  muse;  mi'-ser^  miser,  miserable,  etc. 

3.  X at  the  beginning  of  a word  has  the  sound  of  z : XarJ-thus, 

14.  Syllables. — In  diyiding  words  into  syllables — 

1.  Make  as  many  syllables  as  there  are  vowels  and  diphthongs : 
per-sua' -de.^  meyi'-sae, 

2.  Distribute  the  consonants  so  as  to  give  the  proper  sound  to  each 
vowel  and  diphthong,  as  determined  by  previous  rules  (10-12):  pa! -ter 
pa! -ires.,  a-gro' -rum.,  au-di'-vi;  gen'-e-ri.,  dom'-i-nus;  heV -lum^  pat' -ri-hus  ; 
emp'-tus.,  tern’ -plum  ; rex'-i^  anx'-i-us;  post'-quam.,  lios'-ce} 

CONTINENTAL  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION.^ 

15.  For  the  Continental  Method,  as  adopted  in  this 
country,  take — 

1.  The  Roman  pronunciation  of  the  vowels  and  diphthongs ; see  5 and  C. 

2.  The  English  pronunciation  of  the  consonants  see  13. 

3.  The  Roman  division  of  words  into  syllables ; see  8. 


1 6.  Syllables  are  in  quantity  or  length  either  long,  short, 
or  common.^ 

' I.  Long. — A syllable  is  long  in  quantity — 

1.  If  it  contains  a diphthong  or  a long  vowel : liaec,  res,^ 


1 Observe  that  compound  words  are  separated  into  their  component  parts,  if  the  first 
of  these  parts  ends  in  a consonant  (10,  4,  6),  as  post' -quam ; that  in  other  cases,  after  a 
vowel  with  a long  soun«i,  consonants  are  joined  to  the  following  syllable,  as  in  the  first 
four  examples,  pa' -ter.,  etc.,  and  that,  after  a vowel  with  a short  sound,  a single  conso- 
nant is  joined  to  such  vowel,  as  in  gen'-e-ri  and  dom'-i-nus;  that  two  consonants  are 
separated,  as  in  bel'-lum.,  etc. ; that  .of  three  or  four  consonants,  the  last,  or,  if  a mute  and 
a liquid,  the  last  two,  are  joined  to  the  following  syllable,  as  in  emp'-l/us.,  etc.,  but  that 
the  double  consonant  ck  is  joined  to  the  preceding  vowel,  as  in  rex'-i.,  anx'-i-us. 

2 Strictly  speaking,  there  is  no  Continental  Method,  as  every  nation  on  the  Continent 
of  Europe  has  its  own  method. 

3 Though  the  pronunciation  of  the  consonants  varies  somewhat  in  different  insti- 
tutions. 

4 Common— i e.,  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short.  For  rules  of  quantity  see 
Prosody.  Two  or  three  leading  facts  are  here  given  for  the  convenience  of  the  learner. 

® See  note  3 below. 


QUANTITY. 


ACCENTUATION. 


■^2.  If  its  vowel  is  followed  or  2;,  or  any  two 

consonants,  except  a mute  and  a liquid : ^ dux^  rex^ 
sunt?' 

. — II.  Short. — A syllable  is  short,  if  its  vowel  is  followed 
by  another  vowel,  by  a diphthong,  or  by  the  aspirate  h : 
di’-es,  vi’-ae^  ni'-hih 

III.  Common". — A syllable  is  common,  if  its  vowel,  natu- 
rally short,  is  followed  by  a mute  and  a liquid  : a!-grl. 

Note  1. — Vowels  are  also  in  quantity  either  long,  short,  or  common  ; but 
the  quantity  of  the  vowel  does  not  always  coincide  with  the  quantity  of  the 
syllable.  3 

Note  2. — Vowels  are  long  before  ns^  nf^  gn^  gm^  and  generally  before  y.* 
cdn’-sul^  In-fe-tlx^  reg'-num^  seg -men' -turn ^ Jiu-jus.^ 

Note  3. — The  signs  ",  " are  used  to  mark  the  quantity  of  vowels,  the  first 
denoting  that  the  vowel  over  which  it  is  placed  is  long^  the  second  that  it  is 
common^  i.  e.,  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short:  a-md'-bo.  All  vowels 
not  marked  are  to  be  treated  as  short.^ 

Note  4. — Diphthongs  are  always  long. 


ACCENTUATION.® 

-~17.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  always  aecented  on  the 
first : men'-sa. 

Note.— Monosyllables  are  also  accented. 

18.  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accented  on 


^ That  is,  in  the  order  here  given,  with  the  mute  before  the  liquid ; if  the  liquid  pre- 
cedes, the  syllable  is  long. 

2 Observe  that  the  vowel  in  such  syllables  may  be  either  long  or  short.  Thus  it  is 
long  in  recp,  but  short  in  dux  and  sunt. 

3 Thus  in  long  syllables  the  vowels  may  be  either  long  or  short,  as  in  rex.,  dux.,  sunt; 
see  foot-note  4,  p.  4.  But  in  short  syllables  the  vowels  are  also  short. 

^ See  Schmitz,  pp.  3-33,  also  p.  56;  Kiihner,  I.,  p.  187;  also  H.  A.  J.  Munro’s  pam- 
phlet on  the  Pronunciation  of  Latin,  pp.  24-26. 

5 See  p.  4,  foot-note  4.  In  many  works  short  vowels  are  marked  with  the  sign  '' : 
r^gls. 

® With  the  ancient  Romans  accent  probably  related  not  io  force  or  stress  of  voice,  as 
with  us,  but  to  musical  pitch.  It  was  also  distinguished  as  acute  or  circumflex.  Thus 
all  monosyllables  and  all  words  in  which  the  vowel  of  the  penult  is  long  and  the  final 
syllable  short  were  said  to  have  the  circumflex  accent,  while  all  other  accented  words 
were  said  to  have  the  acute.  The  distinction  is  of  no  practical  value  in  pronunciation. 
On  the  general  subject  of  Accent,  see  Ellis,  pp.  8-10 ; Roby,  I.,  pp.  98-100 ; Kuhner,  I., 
p.  148 ; Corssen,  II.,  pp.  806-808, 


10 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 


the  Penult,'  if  that  is  long  in  quantity/  otherwise  on  the 
Antepenult ho-nd'-ris,  con'-su-Us. 

1.  Certain  words  which  have  lost  a syllable  retain  the  accent  of  the 
full  form.  Thus — 

1)  Genitives  in  I for  il  and  vocatives  in  I for  ie:  in-ge'-ni  for  in-ge' 
Mer-cu'-rl  for  Mer-cu' -ri-e. 

2)  Certain  words  which  have  lost  a final  e : il-llc'  for  il-ll'-cfi.,  il-ldc'  for 
il-la! -ce^  is4lc  for  is-fi'-ce,,  etc. ; ho-ndn!  for  ho-nd'-ne^  il-ldrt!  for  iUld'-ne., 
tan-ton!  for  tan-to-ne^  au-din!  for  au-dls'-ne,,  e-duc'  for  e-du' -ce.^ 

Note  1. — Prepositions  standing  before  their  cases  are  treated  as  Proclitics — i.  e.,  are 
so  closely  united  in  pronunciation  with  the  following  word  as  to  have  no  accent  of  their 
own  : sub  ju' -di-ce,  in-ter  re'-ges. 

Note  2. — Penults  common  in  quantity  take  the  accent  when  used  as  long. 

2.  Compounds  are  accented  like  simple  words  ; but — 

1)  The  enclitics,  que.^  ve.,  ne.,  ce^  met.,  etc.,  throw  back  their  accents  upon 
the  last  syllable  of  the  word  to  which  they  are  appended : hd -mi-ne* -que.,^ 
men-sa' -que.!>  e-go' -met. 

2)  Facid^  compounded  with  other  words  than  prepositions,  retains  its  own 
accent:  ca^le-fa! -cit4 

3.  A secondary  or  subordinate  accent  is  placed  on  the  second  or  third 
syllable  before  the  primary  accent — on  the  second,  if  that  is  the  first  syllable 
of  the  word,  or  is  long  in  quantity,  otherwise  on  the  third : mo' -nu-e' -runt^ 
mo' -nu-e-rd' -mus.,^  in-stau' -rd-ve  -runt. 

Note. — A few  long  w’ords  admit  two  secondary  or  subordinate  accents : ho'-nb-rif- 
ir  cen-tis' -si-mus.^ 

PHONETIC  CHANGES. 

19.  Latin  words  have  undergone  important  changes  in  aecord- 
ance  with  phonetic  laws."^ 

The  penult  is  the  last  syllable  but  one ; the  antepenult,  the  last  but  two. 

2 Thus  the  quantity  of  the  syllable.,  not  of  the  micel.,  determines  the  place  of  the  ac- 
cent : regen' -tis,  accented  on  the  penult,  because  that  syllable  is  long,  though  its  rowel 
is  short;  see  16,  I.,  2. 

3 According  to  Priscian,  certain  contracted  words,  as  res-trds'  for  res-trd'-tis,  or  with 
the  circumflex  accent,  res-trds  for  ves-trd-iis,  Sam-nis  for  8a,m-ni-tis,  also  retained  the 
accent  of  the  full  form ; but  it  is  not  deemed  advisable  to  multiply  exceptions  in  a school 
grammar.  See  Priscian,  lY.,  22. 

4 By  the  English  method,  hom'-i-ne'-que,  cal’ -e-fa' -cit. 

® A word  accented  upon  the  penult  thus  loses  its  own  accent  before  an  enclitic : 
men'-sa,  men-sa'-que. 

® By  the  English  method,  mon'-u-e'-runt.,  mon'-u-e-rd'-mus,  hon' -b-rif -i-cen-tis' 
si-mus. 

In  the  history  of  the  ancient  languages  of  the  Indo-European  family,  to  which  the 
Latin,  Greek,  and  English  alike  belong,  the  general  direction  of  phonetic  change  has  been 
from  the  extremes  of  the  alphabetic  scale — i.  e.,  from  the  open  a at  one  extreme  and 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 


11 


I.  Changes  in  Vowels. 

^ 20.  Vowels  are  often  lengthened  : 

1.  In  compensation  for  the  dropping  of  consonants : 

Servoms^^  servos^  slaves ; regems^  rlges^  kings ; posnO^  pdn6^  I place ; pagla^ 
pdla^  a spade. 

2.  In  the  inflection  of  verbs  : 

Legb^  legi’^  I read,  I have  read ; edb^  edl^  I eat,  I have  eaten;  fugio^  fugl^ 
I flee,  I have  fled. 

Note  1.— Sometimes  vowels  are  changed,  as  well  as  lengthened : agO^  egl^  I drive, 

I  have  driven;  facio^  I make,  I have  made;  see  255,  II. 

Note  2. — Different  forms  from  the  same  stem  or  root  sometimes  show  a variable 
vowel : ducis^  dvcis^  of  a leader,  you  lead ; regis^  regis^  you  rule,  of  a king ; tego^  toga^ 

I cover,  a covering,  the  toga.^  See  also  22,  1. 

21 . Vowels  are  often  shortened : ^ 

1.  Regularly  in  final  syllables  before  m and  t: 

Erdm^  eram^^  I was ; monedm^  moneam^  let  me  advise ; audidm^  audiam^ 
let  me  hear ; erdt^  erat^  he  was ; amdt^  amat^  he  loves ; monlt^  monet^  he 
advises ; sit^  may  he  be ; audlt^  audits  he  hears. 

2.  Often  in  other  final  syllables.  Thus — 

1)  Final  a®  is  shortened  (1)  in  the  Plural  of  Neuter  nouns  and  adjec- 
tives,® and  (2)  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  of  Feminine 
nouns  and  adjectives  of  the  first  declension : 

from  the  close  mutes  at  the  other— toward  the  middle  of  the  scale,  where  the  vowels  and 
consonants  meet;  see  3.  Accordingly,  in  Latin  words  we  shall  not  unfrequently  find  e 
or  o,  or  even  i or  occupying  the  place  of  a primitive  a ; and  we  shall  sometimes  find  a 
liquid  or  o,  fricative  occupying  the  place  of  a primitive  mute.  See  Whitney,  p.  68; 
Papillon,  p.  49;  Peile,  pp.  199  and  312. 

^ O short  in  servoms  is  lengthened  in  servos  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  w,  and 
a short  in  pagla  is  lengthened  in  pdla  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  g. 

2 The  short  vowel  of  the  present  tense  is  here  lengthened  in  the  perfect ; see  255,  II. 

3 In  ducis^  duds.,  and  in  regis.,  regis.,  the  variation  is  simply  in  the  quantity  of  the 
vowel,  but  in  tegb.,  toga.,  it  affects  the  vowel  itself,  appearing  as  e in  tegb  and  o in  toga. 
Sometimes  a single  vowel  appears  in  one  form  while  a diphthong  appears  in  another : 
fides,  faith,  foedus.,  treaty. 

^ See  Corssen,  II.,  p.  436  seq. 

® In  all  these  examples,  the  form  vnth  the  long  vowel  in  the  final  syllable  is  the  earlier 
form,  and,  in  general,  is  found  only  in  inscriptions  and  in  the  early  poets,  as  Plautus, 
Ennius,  etc.;  while  the  form  with  the  short  vowel  belongs  to  the  classical  period. 

® Corssen  regards  numerals  in  -gintd.,  as  trl-gintd.,  quadrd-gintd.,  etc.,  as  Plural 
Neuters,  and  d as  the  original  ending.  He  recognizes  also  the  Neuter  Plural  of  the  pro- 
noun with  d in  ant-ed.,  post-ed.,  inter-ed.,  praeter-ed.  ante-hd-c.,  praeter-Tid-e.  See 
Corssen,  II.,  p.  455  For  a different  explanation,  see  304,  lY.,  N.  2. 

^ In  masculine  nouns  of  the  first  declension  a final  was  short  in  the  Nominative  even 
In  early  Latin : scrlha^  a scribe.  But  most  stems  in  a weakened  a to  o,  and  thus  passed 
into  the  second  declension. 


PHONETIC  CHANCES, 


12 


Templa^  templa^  temples;  genera,,  kinds;  gramd,^  grama,,  heavy; 

musd,  musa,,  muse  ; bond,,  bona,,  good. 

2)  In  ar,  5r,  and  al  final,  d and  o are  regularly  shortened : 

Regdr,,  regar,,  let  me  be  ruled ; audidr,,  audiar,  let  me  be  heard ; audior, 
audior,  I am  heard;  honor,  honor,  honor;  brdtbr,  ordior,  orator;  moneor, 
moneor,  I am  advised;  animdle,  animdl  (27),  animal,  an  animal. 

3)  Final  e,  i,  and  5 are  sometimes  shortened : 

Eerie,  bene,  well ; nube,  nube,  with  a cloud ; nisi,  nisi,  unless ; ibl,  ibi, 
there  ; led,  led,  a lion ; egd,  ego,  I. 

22.  VoAvels  are  often  weakened,  i.  e.,  are  often  changed  to 
weaker  vowels.  ^ 

The  order  of  the  vowels,  from  the  strongest  to  the  weakest,  is  as  follows : 
a,  o,  u,  e,  V 

Thus  a is  changed  to  o . . . u . . . e . . . i. 

o to  u . . . e . . . i. 

u to  e . . . i. 

e to  i. 

Note. — The  change  from  a through  o to  u is  usually  arrested  at  u,  while  a 
is  often  changed  directly  through  e to  i without  passing  through  o or  u.^ 

1.  Vowels  are  often  weakened  in  consequence  of  the  lengthening  of 
words  by  inflection,  composition,  etc. : 

Carmen,'^  carmenis,  carminis,  a song,  of  a song ; fructus,  fructubus,  fruc- 
tibus, fruit,  with  fruits ; facid,  cdn-facid,  cdn-ficid,  I make,  I accomplish ; 
factus,  In-f actus,  In-fectus,  made,  not  made ; damno,  con-damnd,  condem- 
nd,  I doom,  I condemn ; tened,  con-tened,  con-tined,  I hold,  I contain ; cadd, 
ca-cad-l,  ce-cid-l,  I fall,  I have  fallen ; tuba,  tuba-cen,  tubi-cen,  a flute,  a flute- 
player, 

^ See  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  1-486,  The  process  by  which  vowels  are  shortened  (21),  weak- 
ened, or  dropped  (27),  and  by  which  diphthongs  are  weakened  to  single  vowels,  and  con- 
sonants assimilated,  or  otherwise  changed,  is  generally  known  as  Phonetic  Decay.  It 
may  result  from  indistinct  articulation,  or  from  an  effort  to  secure  ease  of  utterance.  For 
a difficult  sound,  or  combination  of  sounds,  it  substitutes  one  which  requires  less  physical 
effort. 

2 But  u,  e,  and  i differ  so  slightly  in  strength  that  they  appear  at  times  to  be  simply 
interchanged. 

3 That  is,  the  open  a is  changed  either  to  the  close  u through  the  medial  o,  as  seen 
on  the  right  side  of  the  following  vowel-triangle,  or  to  the  close  i through  the  medial  e, 
as  seen  on  the  left  side : 

Open  rowel a 

Medial  rowels e o 

Close  rowels i u 

* The  syllable  me/n  was  originally  man.  The  original  a has  been  weakened  to  e in 
carmen  and  to  i in  carmin-is. 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 


13 


2.  Vowels  are  often  weakened  without  any  such  special  cause : ^ 

Puerom.,  puerum^  a boy ; filios.^  filius.^  son ; sont.^  sunt.,  they  are ; regont^ 
regunt.,  they  rule , decumus.,  decimus.,  tenth ; maxumus.,  maximus.,  greatest ; 
legitumus.,  legitimus.,  lawful ; aestumb.,  aestimd.,  I estimate. 

23.  Two  successive  vowels  are  sometimes  contracted : 

1.  Into  a diphthong:  mensd-i,  mensai,  mensae,  tables;  see  4. 

2.  More  frequently  into  a long  vowel.  In  this  case  the  second  vowel 
generally  disappears.  Thus  e and  i often  disappear  after  a,  e,  and  o .* 

Amaverat,  amaerat,  amdrat,  he  had  loved;  amavisse,  amaisse,  amasse,  io 
have  loved ; fleverunt,  fleerunt,  flerunt,  they  have  wept ; novisse,  noisse,  nosse, 
to  know ; servol,  servo,  for  the  slave. 

Note. — The  proper  diphthongs  of  early  Latin  were  changed  or  weak- 
ened as  follows : 

ai  generally  into  ae ; sometimes  into  e or  i. 
oi  generally  into  oe ; sometimes  into  u or  i. 
ei  generally  into  i ; sometimes  unchanged, 
au  sometimes  into  5 or  u ; generally  unchanged, 
eu  generally  into  u ; rarely  unchanged, 
ou  regularly  into  u. 

Aidllis,  aedilis,  an  aedile ; Bomai,  Bbmae,  at  Kome ; amaimus,  amemus.^ 
let  us  love ; in-caedit,  in-cldit,  he  cuts  into ; mensais,  mensls,  with  tables ; 
foidus,  foedus,  treaty ; coira,  coera,  cura,  care  ; loidos,  loedus,  ludus,^  play ; 
puerois,  puerls,  for  the  boys ; ceivis,  clvis,  citizen ; lautus,  lotus, elegant ; 
ex-claudo,  ex-cludo,  I shut  out ; doucit,  ducit,  he  leads ; jous,  jus,^  right. 

24.  Vowels  are  sometimes  changed  through  the  influence  of  the 

consonants  which  follow  them.  Thus — 

1 That  is,  by  the  ordinary  process  of  phonetic  decay,  a process  which  in  many  words 
has  changed  an  original  a of  the  parent  language  to  e or  o in  Latin,  and  in  some  words 
to  i or  u.  Corssen  cites  upward  of  four  hundred  Latin  words  in  which  he  supposes  a 
primitive  a to  have  been  weakened  to  o,  e,  or  i.  Even  the  long  vowels  are  sometimes 
weakened.  Compare  the  following  forms,  in  which  the  Sanskrit  retains  the  vowel  of  the 
parent  language. 


Sanskrit. 

Latin. 

English. 

Sanskrit. 

Latin. 

English. 

sapta. 

septem. 

seven. 

padas, 

pedes, 

feet. 

nava, 

novem. 

nine. 

navas. 

novus. 

new. 

daca. 

decem. 

ten. 

vak. 

vox. 

voice. 

mata. 

mater. 

mother. 

vacas. 

vocis, 

of  a voice. 

sadas. 

sGdes, 

seat. 

vacam. 

vocem, 

voice. 

2 The  forms  ai,  oi,  ei,  au,  eu,  and  ou  are  all  found  in  early  Latin,  as  in  inscriptions; 
but  in  the  classical  period  ai  had  been  already  changed  to  ae,  oi  to  oe,  and  ou  to  u. 

3 Loidos,  the  earliest  form,  became  loedus  by  weakening  oi  to  oe,  and  oiou  (23,  2); 
then  loedus  became  ludus  by  weakening  oe  to  u. 

* Lautus,  the  earlier,  is  also  the  more  approved  form. 

® As  62^  and  ou  were  both  weakened  to  u,  it  is  not  easy  to  give  trustworthy  examples 
of  the  weakening  of  euX^u, 


14 


PHONETIC  CHANCES. 


1.  £j  is  the  favorite  vowel  before  r,  a;,  or  two  or  more  consonants : 

Cinisis^  cineris'^  (31),  of  ashes ; judix^  judex^  judge ; militis^  mllets^  rmles^ 
of  a soldier,  a soldier. 

Note. — E final  is  also  a favorite  vowel ; servo,,  serve,,  0 slave ; morieris^ 
moneri,,  monere,,^  you  are  advised  ; mari,,  mare,,  sea. 

2.  I is  the  favorite  vowel  before  n,  s,  and  t : 

Homonis,  hominis,,  of  a man ; pulver  or  pulvis,,^  dust ; salutes,,  salutis,,  ol 
safety ; verotds,,  veritas,,  truth  ; genetor,,  genitor,,  father. 

3.  U is  the  favorite  vowel  before  I and  m,  especially  when  followed  by 
another  consonant : 

Epistola,,  epistula,,  letter;  volt,  vult,  he  facilitas,  faciltds  (27), 

facultas,  faculty ; mon^entum,  monumentum,  monument ; colomna,  colum- 
na, column. 

25.  Assimilation. — A vowel  is  often  assimilated  by  a follow^ 
ing  vowel.  Thus — 

1.  A vowel  before  another  vowel  is  often  partially  ^ assimilated.  I is  thus 
changed  to  e before  a,  o,  or  u : ia,  ea,  this ; id,  eO,  I go ; iunt,  eunt,  they  go ; 
iadem,  eadem,  same ; dnvus,  dnus  (36,  4),  deus,  god. 

Note. — When  the  first  vowel  is  thus  adapted  to  the  second,  the  assimilation  is  said  to 
be  regressive,  but  sometimes  the  second  vowel  is  adapted  to  the  first,  and  then  the  as- 
similation is  progressive.  Thus  the  ending-  id  (21,  2),  instead  of  becoming  ea  as  above, 
may  become  ie:  luxv/rid  (perhaps  for  luxurias),  luxuries,  luxury;  materia,  materies,^ 
material. 

2.  A vowel  may  be  completely  assimilated  by  the  vowel  of  the  following 
syllable  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a consonant.  Thus — 

1)  .S'  is  assimilated  to  i : mehl,  miM,  for  me ; tebi,  tibl,  for  you ; sebl,  sibl, 
for  himself ; nehil,  nihil,  nothing. 

2)  U is  assimilated  to  i:  cbnsulium,  consilium,  counsel;  exsulium,  ex- 
silium, exile. 

3)  Other  vowels  are  sometimes  assimilated;  o to  6 .*  bone,  bene,  bene  (21,  2), 
well ; e\o  u : teg  urium,  tuguri  um,  hut ; e to  d .*  secor s,  socors,  stupid. 

26.  Dissimilation. — A vowel  is  often  changed  by  dissimilation, 


1 Cinisis,  from  cinis,  becomes  cineris  by  changing  s to  r between  two  vowels,  mak- 
ing ciniris  (31, 1),  and  by  then  changing  i to  e before  r. 

2 Observe  that  the  vowel  which  appears  as  i in  militis  before  t,  takes  the  form  of  c 
In  mllets  before  ts,  as  also  in  miles  for  mllets. 

3 Moneris  becomes  monere  by  dropping  s (36,  5),  and  changing  final  i to  e. 

^ Observe  that  the  form  in  r has  e,  while  that  in  s has  i. 

® That  is,  it  is  made  like  it,  adapted  to  it,  but  does  not  become  identical  with  it. 
Thus  i before  a may  be  changed  to  e,  but  not  to  a. 

® Thus  from  nouns  in  id  of  the  first  declension  were  developed  nearly  all  nouns  in  ies 
of  the  fifth. 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 


15 


i.  c.,  by  being  made  unlike  the  following  vowel : n,  a,  these  ; its, 
eis,  for  these.* * 

Note. — The  combination  ii  is  sometimes  avoided  by  the  use  of  e in  place  of  the  sec- 
ond i : pietds  instead  Qipiitds^  piety ; societas,,  society ; varietas,,  variety. 

27.  Vowels  are  often  dropped  in  the  middle  or  at  the  end  of 
words,  sometimes  even  at  the  beginning  : 

Tempulum,,  templvm,^  temple ; vinculum,,  vinclum^  band ; benigenus,,  benig- 
nus,,’^ benignant ; amab,,  amO,  I love  ; temploa,,  templa,,  temples ; animale,,  ani- 
mal^^  an  animal ; sl-ne,  sin,,  if  not ; dice,,  die,,  say ; esum,,  sum,,  I am ; esumus, 
sumus,,  we  are. 

Note. — After  a word  ending  in  a vowel  or  in  m,  est,,  he  is,  often  drops  the  initial  e, 
and  becomes  attached  to  the  preceding  word : res  optuma  est,,  res  optumast,,  the  thing 
is  best;  optumum  est,,  optvmumst,,  it  is  best ; doml  est,,  domlst,,  he  is  at  home.  In  the 
same  way  es,  thou  art,  is  sometimes  attached  to  the  preceding  word,  when  that  word 
ends  in  a vowel : homo  es,  hombs,,  you  are  a man.  For  the  loss  of  a final  s from  the  pre- 
ceding word,  see  36,  5, 1),  note. 

II.  Interchange  of  Vowels  and  Consonants. 

28.  The  vowel  i and  the  consonant  ^also  written  j — are  some- 
times interchanged  : 

Altior,,^  higher ; mdior  or  major,,  greater ; ipsius,,  of  himself ; Uus  or  ~ejus,, 
of  him. 

29.  The  vowel  u and  the  consonant  u — generally  written  v — are 
often  interchanged  : 

Col-ulj>  I have  cultivated ; vocd-vlj>  I have  called ; ndvita,,  ndvta,,  nauta,, 
sailor ; volvtus,,  volutus,,  rolled ; lavtus,,  lautus  or  Ibtusp  washed ; movtus,, 
moutus,,  motusj-  moved. 

Note.— The  Liquids  and  Nasals  are  sometimes  so  fully  vocalized  as  to  develop  vowels 

1 The  combination  uu  was  also  avoided  in  early  Latin  either  by  retaining  the  second 
vowel  in  the  form  of  o,  instead  of  weakening  it  to  u,,  or  by  changing  qu  to  c .*  equos,, 
afterward  equus,,  a horse ; quom,,  or  cum,,  afterward,  though  not  properly  in  classical 
times,  quum,,  when.  Observe  that  when  o becomes  a preceding  qu  becomes  c : quom,, 
cum  ; loquotiis,,  locutus,,  having  spoken.  See  Brambach,  p.  5. 

2 See  1 6,  note  2. 

3 Observe  that  after  e is  dropped,  a is  shortened  in  the  final  syllable : animal,,  ani- 
mal; see  31,  2. 

* In  the  comparative  ending  ior,,  as  seen  in  altior,,  is  a vowel,  but  in  the  same  end- 
ing, as  seen  in  mdior,,  mdjor,,  it  is  a consonant,  and  in  this  grammar  is  generally  written 
I thus  becomes  j between  two  vowels;  see  3,  4,  foot-note.  So  in  the  genitive  ending 
ius,,  i is  sometimes  a vowel  and  sometimes  a consonant. 

® The  ending  which  appears  as  ul  in  col-ul  becomes  vl  in  vocd-vl,  U becomes  v 
between  two  vowels. 

« If  a vowel  precedes  the  v thus  changed  to  ?«,  a contraction  takes  place— or-2^  becom- 
ing rarely  d,  o-u  becoming  d,  and  u-u  becoming  U : lavtus,,  lautus,,  lotus,,  washed : 
movtus,,  moutus,,  motus,,  moved;  juvtus,,juutus,,  jutus,,  assisted. 


16 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 


before  them.^  Thus  agr  (for  agrus)  becomes  ager^  field  ; dcr  (for  dcWs),  dcer^  sharp*, 
regm^  regent^  king ; sm  (for  esm\  sum^  1 am ; snt  (for  esnt\  sunt.,  they  are. 

III.  Changes  in  Consonants. 

30.  A Guttural — c,  g,^  q (qu),  or  — before  s generally  unites 

with  it  and  forms  x: 

Dues.,  dux.,  leader ; pdcs.,  pax.,  peace ; regs.,  recs.,^  rex.,  king ; legs.,  lees.,  lex., 
law  ; eoqusl.,  eoesi.,^  eoxl.,  I have  cooked  ; traJisl.,  traesl.,  traxl.,  I have  di'awn. 

Note  l.—  V for  gv  in  vlW.,  I live,  is  treated  as  a guttural : mvs%  vlcsl.,  mxi.,  I have 
lived. 

Note  2. — For  the  Dropping  of  the  Guttural  before  s,  see  36,  3. 

31.  S is  often  changed  to  r : 

1.  Generally  so  when  it  stands  between  two  vowels : « fldses.,jid7'es.,  flowers ; 

jusa.,  jura.,  rights;  mensdsum.,  mensarum.,  of  tables;  agrdsum.,  agrorum.,  of 
flelds ; esam.,  eram.,  I was;  esdmus^  eramus.,  we  fuesunt.,  fuerunt.,  they 

have  been;  fuesit.,  fuerit.,  he  will  have  been;  amdset.,  amdret.,  he  would  love; 
regisis.,  regerisf  you  are  ruled. 

Note. — This  phonetic  law,  in  full  force  during  the  formative  period  of  the  language, 
subsequently  became  inoperative. 

2.  Sometimes  before  or  v : easmen.,  earmen.,  song ; 'vetesnus.,  veternus., 
old;  hodiesnus,  hodiernus,  of  this  day  ; Minesva^  Minerva,  the  goddess  Minerva. 

32.  D is  sometimes  changed  to  1 : 

Daerima,  laerima,  tear ; dingua,  lingua,  language ; odere,  olere,  to  emit  an 
odor. 

Note  l.—D  final  sometimes  stands  in  the  place  of  an  original  t:  id^^  this;  istud., 
that : illud,  that;  quod.,  quid.,  what,  v/hich? 

Note  2.— Z)y  at  the  beginning  of  a word  (1)  sometimes  becomes  6 .*  dvellum.,  tellum., 
war;  dvis,  bis,  twice;  (2)  sometimes  drops  d:  dvlginti,  vlginti.,  twenty  ; and  (3)  some- 
times drops  V : dvis,  dis,  inseparable  particle  (308),  in  two,  asunder. 

33.  Paetial  Assimilation. — A consonant  is  often  partially^® 
assimilated  by  a following  consonant.  Thus — 

1 This  occurs  between  consonants  and  at  the  end  of  words  after  consonants. 

2 The  ending  us  or  is  is  dropped  (36,  5,  2),  note),  and  r final  vocalized  to  er  ; m 
becomes  em  in  regem.,  and  um  in  sum;  n becomes  un  in  sunt. 

3 Sometimes  gu : exstingusl.,  exsUncsl,  exstinxi.,  I have  extinguished. 

4 For  an  original  gh. 

5 The  process  seems  to  be  that  the  guttural  before  s first  becomes  c,  and  then  unites 
with  s and  forms  x:  thus  in  eoqusl.,  qu  becomes  c. 

6 Hence,  in  many  Latin  words,  r between  two  vowels  represents  an  original  s. 

^ Observe  that  i before  s becomes  e befoi-e  r;  see  34. 

® For  Men-es-va.,  men  weakened  to  min.,  See  33, 1. 

® For  it.,  istut.,  etc.  D stands  for  t also  in  the  old  Ablative  in  d : praeddd  for  jsrae- 
6?^ afterward  praedd.,  with  booty;  magistrdtud  for  magistrdtut.,  magistrdtu,  from 
the  magistracy. 

10  That  is,  it  is  adapted  or  accommodated  to  it,  but  does  not  become  the  same  ’ettep 


PHONETIC  CHANGES, 


17 


1.  Before  the  surd  s or  t,  a sonant  b or  g is  generally  changed  to  its 
corresponding  surd,  p ^ or  c : 

Scrlhs^  scrlpsl^  I have  written ; scrlbtus^  scriptus^  written ; regsi^  recsl,  rexi 
(30),  I have  ruled;  regtus,,  rectus,,  ruled.  See  also  35,  3,  note. 

Note. — h for  and  r for  gr  are  also  changed  to  c before  s and  t : coqusit^ 
cocait^  coxit^  he  has  cooked ; coqutus^  coctus^  cooked ; trahsi%^  trachiit^^  traxit,  he  has 
drawn ; trahtus,,  tractus,,  drawn;  mmitg^  mcsit,,  rlxit^  he  has  lived ; vlvturus,,  rlcturus, 
about  to  live. 

2.  Before  a sonant  1,  m,  n,  or  r,  a surd  c,  p,  or  t is  generally  changed 
to  its  corresponding  sonant,  g,  b,  or  d : 

Neclegb,,  neglegO,,  I neglect ; sec-mentum,,  segmentum,,  a cutting ; populicus,,^ 
puplicus,,  puUicus,,^  public;  quatrag  quadra,,  a square;  quatrdgintd,,  quadra- 
gintd,,  forty. 

3.  Before  a Labial  p or  b,  n is  generally  changed  to  m : ® 

InperO,,  imperd,,  1 command ; inperdtor,,  imperdtor,,  commander ; inbellis,, 
imbellis un warlike. 

Note. — Before  w,  a Labial  or  & is  changed  to  m in  a few  words : sopnus,,  somnus,, 
sleep  ; Sabnium,,  Samnium,,  the  country  of  the  Samnites. 

4.  M is  changed  to  n — 

1)  Regularly  before  a Dental  Mute : 

Eumdem^  eundem,,  the  same  ; ebrumdem,,  eorundem,,  of  the  same ; quemdam,, 
quendam,,  a certain  one ; tamtus,,  tantus,,  so  great ; quamtus,,  quantus,,  how 
great,  as  great. 

2)  Often  before  a Guttural  Mute : 

Hum-ce,,  hunc,,  this ; num-ce,,  nunc^  now ; prlm-ceps,,  princeps,,  first ; num- 
quam  or  nunquam,,^  never ; quamquam  or  quanquam,,  although. 

1 But  b is  generally  retained  (1)  before  s in  nouns  in  bs : urbs,,  not  urps,  city,  and  in 
from ; and  (2)  before  s and  t in  ob„  on  account  of,  and  sub,  under,  in  compounds  and 

derivatives  : ob-servCins,  observant ; ob-tusus,,  obtuse ; sub-scrlbo,,  I subscribe ; sub-ter,, 
under.  In  these  cases,  however,  b takes  the  sound  of  /»,  so  that  assimilation  takes  place 
in  pronunciation,,  though  not  in  uriting.  It  is  probable  also  that  in  some  other  conso- 
nants assimilation  was  observed  even  when  omitted  in  writing:  inprlmls  and  im- 
primis,, both  pronounced  imprimis.  See  Eoby,  I.,  p.  Ivii. ; Munro,  p.  10. 

2 Qu,,  also  written  is  not  a syllable ; nor  is  u or  r in  this  combination  either  a 
vowel  or  a consonant,  but  simply  a parasitic  sound  developed  by  q,  which  is  never  found 
without  it. 

3 For  traghsit;  h is  dropped,  and  g assimilated  to  c, 

^ For  gvlgrsit;  the  first  g and  the  second  v are  dropped : nlgsit,,  mcsit,,  mxit, 

® From  populus,  the  people. 

® P is  changed  to  &,  and  o is  weakened  to  u ; see  33. 

From  quattuor,,  four. 

® That  is,  the  dental  n becomes  the  labial  m, 

* “ Or  ” placed  between  two  forms  denotes  that  both  are  in  good  use : numquam  oj 
nunquam.  In  other  cases  the  last  is  the  only  approved  form  : nunc,,  'prlncevSf 

3 


18 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 


Note  1. — Before  the  ending  -que^  m is  generally  retained : i qulcumque^  whoever , 
quemque^  every  one  \ namque.^  for  indeed. 

Note  2. — Quom-iam  or  quom-jam  becomes  quoniam^  since. 

34.  A consonant  is  often  completely  assimilated  by  a following 
consonant.  Thus — 

1.  T or  d is  often  assimilated  before  n or  s : 

Petna^  penna^  feather ; mercedndrius^  mercennarius^  mercenary  ; concutsit., 
concussit^  he  has  shaken. 

Note. — M before  s is  sometimes  assimilated,  and  sometimes  develops  p : 
premsit^  pressit^  he  has  pressed ; sumsit^  sumpsit^  he  has  taken. 

2.  D,  n,  or  r is  often  assimilated  before  1 : 

Sedula^  sedla  (S'?),  sella^  seat;  unulus^  unlus  (3* *7),  ullus^  puerula^ 
puerla^  puella^  girl. 

3.  B,  g,  or  n is  often  assimilated  before  m : 

Suh-mov^  or  sum-move6^  I remove ; supmus^  summus^  highest ; flagma^ 
flamma^  flame ; inmUus  or  immotus^  unmoved. 

Note. — For  Assimilation  in  Prepositions  in  Composition^  see  344,  5. 

35.  Dissimilation. — The  meeting  of  consonants  too  closely  re- 
lated and  the  recurrence  of  the  same  consonant  in  successive  syllables 
are  sometimes  avoided  by  changing  one  of  the  consonants.  Thus — 

1.  Caeluleus  becomes  caeruleus^  azure;  medl-dies^  meridies.,  midday. 

2.  Certain  suffixes  of  derivation  have  two  forms,  one  with  r to  be  used 
after  and  one  with  I to  be  used  after  «m,  alis;  hurum.,  hrum^  hu- 
lum  ; 2 curum.,  crum.,  culum  : 

Popularis.,'^  popular ; regdlis^'^  kingly ; dUuhrum.^  shrine  ; tribulum.,  thresh- 
ing-sledge ; sepulcrum,  sepulchre  ; periculum,  peril. 

3.  A Dental  Mute — d or  t — may  unite  with  a following  t in  two  ways : 

1)  Dt  or  tt  before  r may  become  st : 

Bodtrum,  rostrum,  a beak ; equettris,  equestris,  equestrian. 

2)  Dt  or  tt  before  a vowel  may  become  ss  or  s : ® 

Fodtus,  fossus,  dug ; ridtus,  rlsus,  seen ; plaudtus,  plausus,  praised ; met- 
tus,  messus,  reaped ; verttus,  versus,  turned. 

1 But  probably  with  the  sound  oin;  see  p.  17,  foot-note  1. 

2 This  distinction  is,  however,  not  always  observed.  The  form  with  I,  probably 
weakened  from  that  with  r,  became  the  favorite  form,  and  was  generally  used  if  I did 
not  precede. 

3 From  'b'lirum  are  formed  (1)  brum  by  dropping  u.,  and  (2)  bulum  by  weakening  r 
in:o  1.  In  the  same  way  crum  and  culum  are  formed  from  curum. 

* In  popularis,  dris  is  used  because  I precedes;  but  in  regalis,  dlis  is  used  because 
r precedes.  When  neither  I nor  r precedes,  the  weakened  form  dlis  is  used. 

® In  regard  to  the  exact  process  by  which  dt  or  it  becomes  ss  or  s,  there  is  a diversity 
of  opinion  among  philologians.  See  Papillon,  p.  75  ; Koby,  p.  62:  Corssen,  L,  p.  208; 
Stolz,  p.  183,  187;  Osthoff,  p.  550. 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 


19 


Note. — Lgt  may  become  U;  ^ rg%  rs ; ^ Ut,  h;  ® and  rrt,  rs:^  mulgtus^  mulms^ 
milked ; spargtm,  sparsus^  scattered ; falltus^  falsus^  false ; mrrtus.,  'versus.,  swept. 

36.  Omission. — Consonants  are  sometimes  dropped.  Thus— 

1.  Some  words  which  originally  began  with  two  consonants  have  dropped 
the  first : 

Cldmentum  ,3  lamentum.,  lamentation ; gndtus.,  ndtus.,  born  ; gnotus.,^  notus. 
knowm;  dvlgintl.,  vlginti.,  twenty;  sfallit., fallit.,  he  deceives. 

2.  A Dental  Mute — d or  t — before  s is  generally  dropped  : ® 

Lapids.,  lapis.,  stone ; aetdts.,  adds,  age  ; mllets,  7nlles,  soldier ; claudsl., 
clausl,  I have  closed. 

Note. — D is  occasionally  dropped  before  other  consonants : hod-ce,  fioce,  hoe,  this  ; 
quod-cired^  quocirca,^  for  which  reason  : ad-gndsc6,  dgnoscO,  I recognize. 

3.  A Guttural  Mute — c,  g,  or  q (qu) — is  generally  dropped — • 

1 ) Between  a Liquid  and  s : 

Mulcsit,  mulsit,  he  has  appeased;  fulg sit.,  fulsit,  it  has  lightened. 

2)  Between  a Liquid  and  t : 

Fulctus,  fultus,  propped  ; sarctus,  sartus,  repaired. 

8)  Between  a Liquid  and  m : 

Fulgmen,  fulmen,  lightning ; torqumentum,  tormentum,  engine  for  hurling 
missiles. 

Note  1. — A Guttural  Mute  is  occasionally  dropped  in  other  situations.’ 
Thus — 

1.  (7 before  m and  cs  before  n:  luemen.,  lumen,  light;  luesna,  luna,  moon. 

2.  <7  between  n and  d Qxt:  quinctus,  quintus,  hfth;  qulncdecim,  quindecim,  fif- 
teen. 

3.  G before  w or  -w  .* *8  exdgmen,  exdmen  (30, 1),  a swarm ; figmentum,  jumentum, 
beast  of  burden : magmilt,  mdvult.  he  prefers ; iregvis,  bre'cis,  short. 

Note  2.— X is  sometimes  dropped  : sexdecim,  sMecim  (30, 1),  sixteen ; sexnl,  senl, 
six  each ; texula,  texla,  tela,  a web : axula,  axla,  ala,  wing. 

Note  3. — N,^  r,  and  s are  sometimes  dropped  : in-gnbt'us,  Ignbtus,  unknown ; fer- 
mqnsus,  formosus,  beautiful;  quotiens,^^  quoties,  how  often;  deciens,  deciesj^  ten 

1 r is  changed  to  s,  and  g is  dropped. 

2 T’  is  changed  to  s,  and  one  I is  dropped  in  lit,  and  one  r in  rrt. 

3 Compare  cldmO,  I cry  out. 

4 Seen  in  i-gnbtus,  Ignbtus,  unknown. 

s Probabb  first  assimilated  and  then  dropped  : lapids,  lapiss,  lapis.  But  the  dental 
is  sometimes  assimilated  and  retained  : cedsl,  cessl,  I have  yielded : concutsit,  concus- 
sit, he  has  shaken. 

* O lengthened  in  compensation ; see  30,  1. 

’ Sextius  becomes  Sestius,  a proper  name;  sexcenti,  sescentl,  six  hundred;  and 
mvxtus,  mistU'S,  mixed,  by  dropping  the  mute  contained  in  the  double  consonant  x. 

8 G has  also  been  dropped  in  did  for  agio,  I say  ; mdjor  for  magior,  greater,  etc. 

3 In  numerals  nt  is  sometimes  dropped  : ducentnl,  ducenl,  two  hundred  each ; 'vl- 
gent-simus  or  vlcent-simus,  'Vigesimus  or  vicesimus,  twentieth. 

13  So  in  all  numeral  adverbs  in  iens,  ies.  The  approved  ending  in  most  numeral 


20 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 


times:  mulier-hris,  womanly ; prorsa^  prosa,  prose;  isdem,  idem,  same; 

jus-dex,  judex,  judge;  audlsne,  audlne,  audin,  do  you  hear?  vlsne,  vine,  vin,  do 
you  wish  ? 

4.  A Semivowel — -j  or  v,  also  written  i or  u — is  often  dropped  : 

Bi-jugae,  biugae,  hlgae,  chariot  with  two  horses ; quadri-jugae,  quadrigae, 

chariot  with  four  horses ; con-junctus,  co-junctus,  cunctus,  the  whole  ; abjicib 
or  abicib,^  I throw  away ; divitior,  diitior,  ditior,  richer ; nevoid,  neolb,  nolb,  I 
am  unwilling  ; amaverat,  amaerat,  amdrat,  he  had  loved. 2 

Note.-  Separate  words  are  sometimes  united  after  the  loss  of  v : si  vis,  sits,  sis,  u 
you  wish ; si  vultis,  siultis,  siiltis,  if  you  wish. 

5.  Final  consonants  are  often  dropped.  Thus — 

1)  Final  s is  often  dropped:  ^ 

Moneris,  monere  (34, 1,  note),  you  are  advised ; Ulus,  illu,  ille,  that ; istus, 
istu,  iste,  that  of  yours ; ipsus,  ipsu,  ipse,  self,  he  ; parricidas,'^  parricida,  par- 
ricide; magis  or  mage,  more  ; sivis,  sive,  whether,  lit.,  if  you  wish. 

Note.— In  the  early  poets  es,  thou  art,  and  est,  he  is,  after  having  dropped  the  initial 
e,  sometimes  become  attached  to  the  preceding  word,  which  has  lost  its  final  s : veritus 
es,  veritu" s,  you  feared ; tempus  est,  tempust,  it  is  time ; virtus  est,  virtust,  it  is  virtue. 
See  37,  note. 

2)  A final  d or  t is  often  dropped  : 

Cord,  cor,  heart ; praeddd,  praeda,^  with  booty  ; intrdd,  intrd,  within ; fa- 
cilumied,^  facillime,  most  easily ; venprunt^  veneru,  venere,  they  have  come ; 
rexerunt,  rexere,  they  have  ruled. 

Note. — Sometimes  both  a vowel  and  a consonant  disappear  at  the  end  of  a word: 
puerus,  puer,  boy  (51,  2,  4));  deinde  or  dein,  thereupon;  nihilum  or  nihil,  nothing. 

3)  A final  n®  is  generally  dropped  in  the  Nominative  Singular  from 
Htems  in  on: 

Leon,  led,  lion ; praedbn,  praedd,  robber ; Tiomon,  liomd,  man. 

edverbs  is  ies,  but  in  those  formed  from  indefinite  numerals,  as  tot,  quot,  it  is  iens: 
toUens,  quotiens. 

1 This  is  the  approved  form  in  verbs  compounded  of  jacid  and  monosyllabic  preposi- 
tions ; but  abicid  is  pronounced  as  if  written  abjicid  or  ab-iicid,  i.  e.,  i =ji,  pronounced 
ye  by  the  Roman  method.  The  syllable  ab  thus  remains  long. 

2 Several  adverbial  forms  were  produced  by  the  loss  of  v with  the  attendant  changes : 
^eeiorsus,  reorsus,  rursus,  back ; subsvorsum,  susvorsum,  suorsum,  sursum,  from  be- 
low, on  high. 

2 In  early  inscriptions  proper  names  in  os,  afterward  us,  occur  without  the  s as  often 
as  with  it : Roscios,  Rbscio ; Gabinios,  Gabinio. 

^ This  form  actually  occurs  in  early  Latin. 

® The  Ablative  singular  ended  anciently  in  d,  originally  t.  Many  prepositions  and 
adverbs  in  d and  e are  ablatives  in  origin,  and  accordingly  ended  in  d. 

® Written  with  one  I,  afterward  with  two. 

^ Here  final  t was  first  dropped,  then  n,  having  become  final,  also  disappeared,  and  at 
last  final  u was  weakened  to  e ; see  34,  1,  note. 

s In  early  inscriptions  final  m is  often  dropped. 


' ETYMOLOGY.  • 21 

; OARL  niNRICHS 

I 

PART  SECOND. 
ETYMOLOGY. 

37.  Etymology  treats  of  the  classification,  inflection, 
and  derivation  of  words. 

38.  The  Parts  of  Speech  are — Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pro- 
nouns,  Verbs,  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and 
Interjections. 


CHAPTEK  I. 

NOUNS. 

39.  A Noun  or  Substantive  is  a name,  as  of  a person, 
place,  or  thing  : Cicero,  Cicero  ; Roma,  Home ; domus, 
house. 

1.  A Proper  Noun  is  a proper  name,  as  of  a person  or  place  : Ciccrb , 
Roma. 

2.  A Common  Noun  is  a name  common  to  all  the  members  of  a class 

of  objects  : man  ; equus.,  horse.  Common  nouns  include — 

1)  Collective  Nouns.,  designating  a collection  of  objects  : populus., 
people ; exercitus,  army. 

2)  Abstract  Nouns,  designating  properties  or  qualities : virtus,  virtue ; 
justitia,  justice. 

8)  Material  Nouns,  designating  materials  as  such  : aurum,  gold ; 
tignum,  wood  ; aqua,  water. 

40.  Nouns  have  Gender,  Number,  Person,  and  Case. 

I.  Gender. 

41.  There  are  three  genders^ — Masculine,  Feminine,  and 
Neuter. 

Note. — In  some  nouns  gender  is  determined  by  signification  ; in  others,  by  endings. 


1 In  English,  Gender  denotes  sex.  Accordingly,  masculine  nouns  denote  males; 
feminine  females ; and  neuter  nouns,  objects  which  are  neither  male  nor  female. 

In  Latin,  however,  this  natural  distinction  of  gender  is  applied  only  to  the  names  of 
males  and  females ; while,  in  all  other  nouns,  gender  depends  upon  an  artificial  dis 
tinction  according  to  grammatical  rules. 


22  FERBON  AND  NUMBER.  OASES. 

ir  42.  Gtekekal  Eules  for  Geis’der. 

L Masculines. 

1.  Names  of  Males:  Cicerd ; vir,  man  ; rex,  king. 

2.  Names  of  Rivers,  Winds,  and  Months:  Rhenus^ 
Rhine  ; Notus,  south  wind ; Martius,  March. 

II.  Feminines. 

1.  Names  of  Females : mulier,  woman  ; leaena,  lioness. 

2.  Names  of  Countries,  Toivns,  Islands,  and  Trees  : 
Graecia,  Greece  ; Roma,  Rome  ; Delos,  Delos  ; pirus,  pear- 
tree. 

Note. — Indeclinable  nouns, ^ infinitives,  and  all  clauses  used  as  nouns  are  neuter: 
alpha,  the  letter  a.^  See  also  532.  J 

43.  Remarks  on  Gender. 

1.  Exceptions. — The  endings^  of  nouns  sometimes  give  them  a gender 
at  variance  with  these  rules.  Thus,  some  names  of  7'ivers^  countries^  towns, 
islands,  trees,  and  animals  take  the  gender  of  their  endings;  see  53,  1. 

2.  Masculine  or  Feminine. — A few  personal  appellatives  applicable  to 
both  sexes  and  a few  names  of  animals  are  sometimes  masculine  and  some- 
times feminine,  but  when  used  without  distinct  reference  to  sex  they  are 
generally  masculine : civis,  citizen  (man  or  woman) ; hos,  ox,  cow. 

3.  Epicene  Nouns  apply  only  to  the  inferior  animals.  They  are  used 
for  both  sexes,  but  have  only  one  gender,  and  that  is  usually  determined 
by  their  endings  : anser,  goose,  masculine ; aquila,  eagle,  feminine. 

II.  Person  and  Number. 

44.  The  Latin,  like  the  English,  has  three  persons  and 
two  numbers.  The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker ; the 
second,  the  person  spoken  to  ; the  third,  the  ]3erson  spoken 
of.  The  singular  number  denotes  one,  the  plural  more 
than  one. 

III.  Cases.4 

45.  The  Latin  has  six  cases  : 


1 Except  names  of  persons. 

2 See  128,1. 

3 Gender  as  determined  by  the  endings  of  nouns  will  be  noticed  in  connection  with 
the  several  declensions. 

^ The  case  of  a noun  shows  the  relation  which  that  noun  sustains  to  other  words ; as, 
John's  hook.  Here  the  possessive  case  {John's)  shows  that  J ohn  sustains  to  the  book 
the  relation  of  possessor. 


Declension. 


NAMES. 


ENGLISH  EQUIVALENTS. 


Nominative, 

Genitive, 

Dative, 

Accusative, 

Vocative, 

Ablative, 


Nominative. 

Possessive,  or  Objective  with  of. 
Objective  with  to  or  for. 
Objective. 

Nominative  Independent. 
Objective  with  from,  with,  ly,  in. 


1.  Oblique  Cases. — The  Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and  Ablative 
are  called  the  Oblique  Cases. 

2.  Locative. — The  Latin  has  also  a few  remnants  of  another  case, 
called  the  Locative,  denoting  the  place  in  which. 


46.  Stem  akd  Suffixes. — The  process  by  which  the 
several  cases  of  a word  are  formed  is  called  Declension.  It 
consists  in  the  addition  of  certain  suffixes  to  one  common 
base  called  the  stem. 

1.  Meaning. — Accordingly,  each  case-form  contains  two  distinct  ele- 
ments— the  stcmi^  which  gives  the  general  meaning  of  the  word,  and  the 
case-suffix.,  which  shows  the  relation  of  that  meaning  to  some  other  word. 
Thus,  in  7'eg-is,  of  a king,  the  general  idea,  king,  is  denoted  by  the  stem 
reg  ; the  relation  of,  by  the  suffix  is. 

2.  Cases  alike. — But  certain  cases  are  not  distinguished  in  form. 

1)  The  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative  in  Neuters  are  alike,  and 
in  the  plural  end  in  a. 

2)  The  Nominative  and  Vocative  are  alike,  except  in  the  singular  of 
nouns  in  us  of  the  second  declension  (51).^ 

3)  The  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  are  alike. 

3.  Characteristic. — The  last  letter  of  the  stem  is  called  the  Stem- 
Characteristic,  or  the  Stem-Ending. 

47.  Five  Declensions. — In  Latin  there  are  five  de- 
clensions, distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  stem-char- 
acteristics or  by  the  endings  of  the  Genitive  Singular,  as 
follows : 


1 Moreover,  in  many  words  the  stem  itself  is  derived  from  a more  primitive  form 
called  a Root  For  the  distinction  between  roots  and  stems,  and  for  the  manner  in 
«7hich  the  latter  are  formed  from  the  former,  see  313-318. 

2 And  in  some  nouns  of  Greek  origin. 


DECLENSION. 


24 


FIRST  HECLENSIOlf. 


. I. 

CHARACTERISTICS.  GENITIVE  ENDINGS. 

^ ae 

II. 

o 

i 

III. 

i or  a consonant 

is 

IV 

u 

us 

V. 

e 

§1 

Note  1,— The  five  declensions  are  only  five  varieties  of  one  general  system  of  inflec- 
tion,  as  the  case-suffixes  are  nearly  identical  in  all  nouns. 

Note  2.— But  these  case-suffixes  appear  distinct  and  unchanged  only  in  nouns  with 
consonant-stems,  while  in  all  others  they  are  seen  only  in  combination  with  the  charac- 
teristic, i.  e.,  with  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem. 

Note  3.— The  ending  produced  by  the  union  of  the  case-suffix  with  the  charac 
teristic  vowel  may  for  convenience  be  called  a Case-Ending. 


FIRST  DECLENSION:  A NOUNS. 
48.  Nouns  of  the  first  declension  end  in 

a and  e — -feminine ; as  and  es — masculine.^ 
Nouns  in  a are  declined  as  follows  : 


j.  Example. 

Meaning. 

Case-Ending. 

^ Nom. 

mensa, 

a table,- 

Gen. 

mensae, 

of  a table, 

ae 

Dat. 

mensae, 

to,  for  a table. 

ae 

2>Acc. 

mensam. 

a table. 

am 

^>Voa. 

mensa. 

0 table. 

a 

^^bl. 

mensa. 

from,  with,  by  a table,^ 

a 

PLURAL. 

/ Nom. 

mensae, 

tables. 

ae 

^ Gen. 
^ Dat. 

mensaram. 

of  tables. 

arum 

mensis. 

to,  for  tables. 

Is 

^Acc. 

mensas. 

tables. 

as 

J^oc. 

mensae. 

0 tables. 

ae 

Abl. 

mensis. 

from,  with,  by  tables."^ 

Is 

^ That  is,  nouns  of  this  declension  in  a and  e are  feminine,  and  those  in  us  and  es  are 
masculine. 

2 The  Nom.  mensa  may  be  translated  a table,  table,  or  the  table;  see  48,  6. 

^ These  case- endings  will  serve  as  a practical  guide  to  the  learner  in  distinguishing 
i.he  different  cases.  The  two  elements  which  originally  composed  them  have  undergone 
various  changes,  and  in  certain  cases  the  one  or  the  other  has  nearly  or  quite  disappeared. 
Thus  the  suffix  has  disappeared  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular,  and  appears 
only  as  e in  four  other  case-forms,  while  the  characteristic  a has  disappeared  in  the  ending 
Is,  contracted  from  a-is,  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural ; see  ^3,  2,  note. 

^ Still  other  prepositions,  as  in,  on,  ut,  are  sometimes  used  in  translating  the  Ablativo 


PiMT  Declension. 


. 35 


1.  Stem. — In  nouns  of  the  first  declension,  the  stem  ends  in  a. 

2.  In  the  Paradigm,  observe  that  the  stem  is  mensa^  and  that  the  sev- 
eral cases  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their  case-endings. 

3.  Examples  for  Practice. — Like  mema  decline : 

Ala.,  wing ; aqua.,  water ; causa.,  cause  ; fortuna.,  fortune. 

J 4.  Locative. — Names  of  towns  and  a very  few  other  words  have  a 
/Locative  Singular^  in  ae,  denoting  the  place  in  which  (45,  2),  and  are 
declined  in  the  singular  number  as  follows : 


Nora.  Roma,  Rome., 

Gen.  Romae,  of  Rome., 
Dat.  Romae,  for  Rome,^ 
Acc.  Rdmam,  Rome., 

Voc.  Roma,  0 Rome., 
Ahl.  Roma,  from  Ronce^^ 
Loc.  Romae,  at  Rome. 


militia,  war^^ 

militiae,  of  war., 

militiae,  for  luar., 

militiam,  war., 

militia,  0 war., 

militia,  from  war., 

militiae,  in  war. 


6.  Exceptions  in  Gender. — ^1.  A few  nouns  in  a are  masculine  by 
signification : agricola.,  husbandman  ; see  42, 1. — 2.  Hadria.,  Adriatic  Sea, 
■is  masculine ; sometimes  also  damma.,  deer,  and  talpa.,  mole. 

6.  Article. — The  Latin  has  no  article:  corona.,  crown,  a crown,  the 
crown  ; ala^  wing;  a wing,  the  wing. 

4.9.  Irregular  Case-Endings. — The  following  occur : ^ 

1.  as  in  the  Genitive  of  familia.,  in  composition  with  pater.,  mater., 
filius.,  and  filia:  paterfamilias.,  father  of  a family. 

2.  sii,  an  old  form  for  the  Genitive  ending  ae^  in  the  poets : ® aulal.,  af- 
terward aidae.,  of  a hall. 

3.  tim®  in  the  Genitive  Plural:  Dardanidum  for  Dardanidarum^  of 
the  descendants  of  Dardanus. 

4.  abus  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural,  especially  in  dea.,  goddess, 
and  filia.,  daughter,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  same  cases  of  deus.,  god, 
and  filius.,  son : deahus  for  dels.,  to  goddesses. 

1 In  the  Plural  of  all  nouns  the  Locative  meaning-  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  : Athenis., 
at  Athens.  Whether,  however,  the  form  Athenis  is  in  orig-in  a Locative,  an  Ablative,  or 
neither,  is  a disputed  question.  See  Bopp,  1.,  pp.  484  seq. ; Schleicher,  pp.  586,  58T , 
Penka,  p.  194;  Delbriick,  p.  27;  Merg-uet,  pp.  116,  117;  Wordsworth,  p.  59.  In  most 
nouns  the  Locative  meaning  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  in  both  numbers. 

2 The  Plural  when  used  is  like  the  Plural  of  mensa. 

3 For  the  other  prepositions  which  may  be  used  in  translating  the  Dative  and  the 
Ablative,  see  45.  Militia,  war,  warfare,  military  service. 

4 To  these  must  be  added  for  early  Latin  a in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  and  dd  in 
the  Abl.  Sing.;  see  31,  2, 1),  and  36,  5,  2). 

® Also  in  inscriptions  as  the  ending  of  the  Genitive,  Dative,  and  Locative. 

® Contracted  from  a-um  like  the  Greek  oriav,  a>y,  u shortened  before  m;  see  580,  11 


26 


SBCONL  DSOLmStON. 


Note. — Kouns  in  ia  sometimes  have  Is  for  Us  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural. 
gratis  for  grdtils^  from  gratia^  favor,  kindness. 

50.  GiiEEK  Nouks. — Nouns  of  this  declension  in  as, 
and  es  are  of  Greek  origiiv,'  and  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Epitome,  e'pitome.  | 

ly^Aeneas,  Aeneas. 

Pyrites,  pyrites. 

\ 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.  epitome 

Aeneas 

pyrites 

Gen.  epitomes 

Aeneae 

pyiitae 

Dat.  epitomae 

Aeneae 

pyritae 

Acc.  epitomem 

Aeneam,  am 

pyritem 

Voc.  epitome 

Aenea 

pyrite,  a 

Ahl.  epitome 

Aenea 

pyrite,  a 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  epitomae 

pyritae 

Gen.  epitomamm 

pyritarmm 

Dat.  epitomis 

pyritis 

Acc.  epitomas 

pyritas 

Voc.  epitomae 

pyritae 

Ahl.  epitomis 

pyritis 

Note  1. — In  the  Plural  and  in 

the  Dative  Singular,  Greek 

noiins  are  declined  like 

mensa. 

Note  2,— In  nouns  in  e and  es,  the  stem-ending  a.  is  changed  to  e in  certain  cas«s. 
Note  3. — Many  Greek  nouns  assume  the  Latin  ending  a,  and  are  declined  like  mensa. 
Many  in  e have  also  a form  in  a : epitome.^  epitoma.^  epitome. 

SECOND  DECLENSION:  O NOUNS. 

51.  Nouns  of  the  second  declension  end  in 

er,  ir,  us,  and  os  ^ — masculine  ; um,  and  on — neuter. 

Nouns  in  er,  ir,  us,  and  um  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Servus,^  slave. 

Puer,  hoy. 

Ager,  field. 

Templum,  temple 

1 Nom.  servms^  ^ 

1 . 

SINGULAR(^^v>^ 
v^puer  ^ager 

templmm 

^Gen.  servi 

pueri 

agri 

templi 

Dat.  servo 

puero 

agro 

templo 

Acc.  servmm 

puermm 

agrum 

templmm 

pVoc.  serve 

puer 

ager 

templmm 

Ahl.  servo 

puero 

agro 

templo 

Sometimes  ds. 

2 Sometimes  written  servos ; see  53, 1. 

8 In  the  Roman  and  in  the  Continental  pronunciation,  quantity  furnishes  a safe  guide 


DECLENSION-, 


Nom.  servi 
Gen,  servonim 
Dat.  servis 
Acc,  servos 
Voc,  servi 
Ahl,  servis 


PLURAL. 

pueri 

puerorum 

pueris 

pueros 

pueri 

pueris 


agri 

agrorum 

agris 

agros 

agri 

agris 


templa 

templorum 

templis 

templa 

templa 

templis 


1.  Stem. — In  nouns  of  the  second  declension,  the  stem  ends  in  o. 

2.  In  the  Paradigms,  observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  are  servo,^  puero,,  agro,,  and  templo. 

2)  That  the  characteristic  o becomes  u in  the  endings  us  and  um,,  and  e 
in  serve,^  that  it  disappears  by  contraction  in  the  endings  and  Is  (for  e-a, 

and  o-is)^  and  is  dropped  in  the  ioxm'&puer  and  ager, 

3)  That  the  case-endings,  including  the  characteristic  o (47,  N.  2),  are  as 


follows : 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masc. 

Netjt 

Masc. 

Neut. 

Nom, 

us  4 

um 

Nom. 

I 

a 

Gen. 

i 

i 

Gen. 

orura 

orum 

Dat, 

0 

0 

Dat. 

Is 

is 

Acc, 

um 

um 

Acc. 

os 

a 

Voc. 

e4 

um 

Voc. 

i 

a 

All. 

0 

o 

All. 

is 

is 

4)  That  puer  and  ager  differ  in  declension  from  servus  in  dropping  the 
endings  us  and  e in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative:  lAom.  puer  ior  puerus,, 
V oc.  puer  for  puere. 

5)  That  e in  ager  is  developed  by  the  final  r.^ 

6)  That  templum.,  as  a neuter  noun,  has  the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and 
Vocative  alike,  ending  in  the  plural  in  a ; see  46,  2,  1). 

3.  Examples  for  Practice. — Like  servus  : dominus,,  master.  Like 
puer:  gener,,  son-in-law.  Like  ager:  magister,,  master.  Like  templum: 
helium,  war. 


to  the  sounds  of  the  vowels  ; see  5.  In  the  English  method,  on  the  contrary,  the  quan- 
tity of  the  vowels  is  entirely  disregarded,  except  as  it  affects  the  accent  of  the  word. 
Thus,  a in  ager  is  short  in  quantity,  but  long  in  sound  (10,  3),  while  I in  servls,  puerls,, 
agris,  and  templis  is  long  in  quantity  but  short  in  sound  (11,  1). . Accordingly,  in  this 
method,  the  sounds  of  the  vowels  must  be  determined  by  the  rules  given  in  9,  10 
and  11.  Moreover,  the  learner  must  not  forget  that  when  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  is 
tnown,  the  quantity  of  the  syllable,  as  used  in  poetry,  is  readily  determined  by  article  16 

1 See  23  and  24, 1,  note. 

2 Shortened  from  d;  see  21,  2, 1). 

® See  23,  note,  and  27. 

^ The  endings  of  the  f^orn.  and  Voc.  Sing,  are  wanting  in  nouns  in  e/r. 

® See  29,  note. 


SjSCOJ^D  declenswk 


as 

4.  Nouns  in  er  and  ir. — Most  nouns  in  er  are  declined  like  ager^  but 
the  following  in  er  and  ir  are  declined  \\V.Q.puer : 

1)  Nouns  in  ir : vir^  virl^  man. 

2)  Compounds  in  fer  and  ger  : armiger^  armigeri^  armor-bearer ; signifer, 
signiferi.^  standard-bearer. 

3)  Adulter adulterer  ; Celtiher^^  Celtiberian ; gener ^ son-in-law  ; Iher^^ 
Spaniard;  L%bei\  Bacchus;  llherl^  children;  Mulciber Vulcan;  'presbyter^ 
elder ; socer father-in-law  ; vesper.,  evening. 

5.  Nouns  in  ius  generally  contract  ii  in  the  Genitive  Singular  and  ie 

in  the  Vocative  Singular  into  i without  change  of  accent : Claudl  for 
Claudii^  of  Claudius, for  of  a son;  Alercu'ri  for  MercErie^  Mer- 

cury, fill  for  fllie^  son.^  In  the  Genitive  Singular  of  nouns  in  ium  the 
same  contraction  takes  place:  inge'nl  for  inge'ni\  of  talent;  see  18,  1. 

6.  Deus  is  thus  declined : Sing,  deus^  de\  ded^  deum^  deus^  deo : Plur.  N. 
and  V.  del^  du^  dlf  G.  deorum^  deum  ; D.  and  A.  dels^  dils,  dls;^  Acc.  deos. 

1.  Neuters  in  us. — The  three  neuter  nouns  in  us pelagus^  sea,  vlrus^  poi- 
son,‘and  vulgus^  the  common  people,  are  declined  in  the  singular  as  follows : 

Nom.^  Acc.^  Foe.  pelagus  virus  vulgus® 

6ren.  pelagi  ‘ viri  vulgi 

Eat.,  Abl.  pelago  viro  vulgo 

Note. — Pelagus  is  a Greek  noun  (54,  N.  2),  and  in  general  is  used  only  in  the  singu- 
lar, though  pelage  occurs  as  an  Acc.  Plur.  Virus  and  rulgus  are  used  only  in  the 
singular.  Vulgus  has  a masculine  Acc.,  rulgum.,  in  addition  to  the  neuter  form  rulgus. 

8.  Locative. — Names  of  towns  and  a few  other  words  have  a Locative 
Singular®  in  i,  denoting  place  in  which  (45,  2),  and  are  declined  in  the 
singular  number  as  follows : 


Nom. 

Ephesus, 

Ephesus, 

belliim. 

war, 

Gen. 

EphesI, 

of  Ephesus, 

belli. 

of  war. 

Dat. 

Epheso, 

for  Ephesus, 

bello. 

-^or  war, 

Acc. 

Epheswm, 

Ephesus, 

bellum. 

ivar. 

Voc. 

Ephese, 

0 Ephesus, 

bellum, 

0 war. 

Abl. 

Epheso,  from  Ephesus, 

bello,  from,  by  icar. 

Loc. 

Ephesi, 

at  Ephesus. 

belli. 

in  war. 

1 Celliber  and  Iher  have  e long  in  the  Gen.,  and  Mulciber  sometimes  drops  e. 

2 JSouns  in  eius  sometimes  contract  He  in  the  Voc.  Sing,  into  H;  PompH  or  Pom- 
pei., Pompey. 

3 Di  and  dls  are  the  approved  forms,  but  del.,  dii  and  dels.,  diis  also  occur. 

4 Originally  s-stems  which  by  the  loss  of  s in  the  oblique  cases  have  become  o-stems; 
see  63,  I.,  1,  foot-note. 

® Also  written  volgus. 

® In  the  Plural  the  Locative  meaning  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative:  Gabils^  at  Gabii; 
see  48,  4,  foot-note. 

’ The  Plural,  when  used,  is  like  the  Plural  of  servus^  puer.,  etc. 


SECOND  DECLENSION. 


29 


62.  Irregular  Case-Endings.— The  following  occur : * 

1.  os  and  om,  old  endings  for  us  and  wm,  sometimes  used  after  v and 
servos  for  servus.,  servom  for  servum  ; mortuos  for  mortuus,  dead. 

2.  us  for  e in  the  Vocative  of  deus,  god ; rare  in  other  words. 

3.  um  in  the  Genitive  Plural,  especially  common  in  a few  words  de- 
} noting  money,  weight,  and  measure : talentum  for  talentorum,  of  talents ; 

also  in  a few  other  words:  deum  for  deorum;  liberum  for  liberorum  ; 
Argivum  for  Argivorum. 

Note.— The  ending  um  occurs  also  in  the  Genitive  Plural  of  many  other  words, 
especially  in  poetry.  For  the  quantity  ot  see  p.  ib,  toot- note  6. 

53.  Gender. — Nouns  in  er,  ir,  us,  and  os  are  masculine,  those  in  um 
and  on  are  neuter ; except — 

1.  The  Feminines: — (1)  See  43,  II.,  but  observe  that  many  names  of 
countries,  towns,  islands,  and  trees  follow  the  gender  of  their  endings. 

Most  names  of  gems  and  ships  are  feminine : also  alvus,  belly ; carbasus,  sail ; 
colus,  distaff;  humus,  ground;  vannus,  sieve.  (3)  A few  Greek  feminines. 

2.  The  Neuters pelagus,  sea;  virus,  poison;  vulgus,  common  people. 
For  declension,  see  51,  7. 

54.  Greek  Nouns. — Nouns  of  this  declension  in  os,  os, 
and  on  are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  declined  in  the  singu- 
lar as  follows  : 


Delos, 

F.,®  Delos. 

Androgeos,  Androgeos. 

Ilion,  Ilium, 

Nom. 

Delos 

Androgeos 

Ilion 

Gen. 

Deli 

Androgeo,  i 

Ilii 

Dat. 

Delo 

Androgeo 

Ilio 

Acc. 

Delon 

Androgeon,  o 

Ilion 

Voc. 

Dele 

Androgeos 

Ilion 

Abl. 

Delo 

Androgeo 

hio 

Note  1.— The  Plural  of  nouns  in  os  and  on  is  generally  regular,  but  certain  Greek 
endings  occur,  as  oe  in  the  Nominative  Plural,  and  bn  in  the  Genitive. 

Note  2.— Most  Greek  nouns  generally  assume  the  Latin  forms  in  us  and  um,  and  are 
declined  like  servus  and  templum.  Many  in  os  or  on  have  also  a form  in  us  or  um. 
Note  3. — For  Greek  nouns  in  eus,  see  68  and  68,  1. 

Note  4:.— Panthus  has  Voc.  Panthu.  ¥ov pelagus,  see  51,  7,  note. 


1 To  these  must  be  added  for  early  Latin:  1)  bd  in  Abl.  Sing.,  and  d in  Nom.,  Acc., 
and  Yoc.  of  the  Neut.  Plur. ; see  36,  5,  2),  and  31,  2, 1);  2)  oe  in  Gen.  Sing. ; oe,  e,  es, 
eis,  and  in  Nom.  Plur. : jpo/?^oe=populi;  ploirume=-g\b.x\ml',  vires=\\vl\  leibereis  ox 
leiberls=\VooT\. 

2 Some  recent  editors  have  adopted  vos,  uos,  vom  and  uom,  for  vus,  uus,  vum  and 
uum,  but  the  wisdom  of  such  a course  is  at  least  questionable.  See  Brambach,  p.  3. 

3 M.  stands  for  masculine,  F,  iox feminine,  and  N.  for  neuter^ 


30 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


THIRD  DECLENSION  : CONSONANT  AND  I NOUNS. 

55.  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  end  in 

a,  e,  i,  6,  y,  c,  I,  n,  r,  s,  t,  and  x. 

56.  Nouns  of  this  declension  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes  : 

I.  Nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  a Consonant. 

II.  Nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  I.^ 

CLASS  I.— CONSONANT  STEMS. 

57.  Stems  ending  in  a Labial:  b oe  p. 


Princeps, 

M.,^  leader.,  chief. 

SINGULAR. 

Case-Suffixes 

Nom. 

princeps. 

a leader, 

s 

Gen. 

principis. 

of  a leader, 

is 

Dot. 

principi, 

to,  for  a leader. 

I 

Acc. 

principem. 

a leader, 

em 

Voc. 

princeps, 

0 leader. 

s 

AM. 

principe. 

from,  loith,  hy  a leader, 

e 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

principes, 

leaders. 

es 

Gen. 

principiim, 

of  leaders. 

um 

Dot. 

principibus, 

to,  for  leaders. 

ibus 

Acc. 

principes. 

leaders. 

es 

Voc. 

principes. 

0 leaders. 

es 

Ahl. 

principibus. 

from,  with,  hy  leaders. 

ibus 

1.  Stem  and  Case-Suffixes. — In  this  Paradigm  observe — 

1)  That  the  stem  is  princep.,  modified  before  an  additional  syllable  to 
yrlncip  ; see  33,  1,  and  57,  2. 

2)  That  the  case-suffixes  appear  distinct  and  separate  from  the  stem ; ^ see 
46,  1,  and  47,  note  2. 

2.  Variable  Vovtel. — In  the  final  syllable  of  dissyllabic  consonant 
stems,  short  e or  i generally  takes  the  form  of  e in  the  Nominative  and 
Vocative  Singular  and  that  of  i in  all  the  other  cases.  Thus  princeps^ 

1 For  Gender,  see  99-115. 

2 See  foot-note  3,  p.  29. 

3 Thus,  prlncep-s^  prmcip-is.,  etc.  In  the  first  and  second  declensions,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  suffix  can  not  be  separated  from  the  final  vowel  of  the  Stem  in  such  forms  a? 
•mensis^  puerl^  agru^  etc. 


THIRD  DECLENSION 


31 


prlndpis^"^  and  judex^  judicis  (59),  alike  have  e in  the  Nominative  and 
Vocative  Singular  and  i in  all  the  other  cases,  though  in  princeps  the 
original  form  of  the  radical  vowel  is  e,  and  in  judex^  i.  For  a similar 
change  in  the  vowel  of  the  stem,  see  mlles^  militis  (58),  and  carmen^  car- ' 
minis  ^ (60).  See  also  opus^  operis  (61). 

3.  In  monosyllables  in  bs  the  stem  ends  in  i ; see  urbs,  64. 

4.  For  the  Locative  in  the  Third  Declension,  see  66,  4. 

5.  For  Synopsis  of  Declension  89.  ^ 


68.  Stems  ending 


)ental  • p or  t. 


• . M.,  stone. 

^ M.,  soh 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.  lapis 

aetas 

miles 

Gen.  lapidis 

aetatis 

militis 

Dat.  lapidi 

aetati 

militi 

Acc.  lapidem 

aetatem 

militem 

Voc.  lapis 

aetas 

miles 

Ahl.  lapide 

aetate 

mihte 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  lapides 

aetates 

milites 

Gen.  lapidiim 

aetatum 

militum 

Dat.  lapidil>«.s 

aetati1>us 

militibus 

Acc.  lapides 

aetates 

milites 

Voc.  lapides 

aetates 

milites 

Ahl.  lapidil>ias 

aetatibus 

militibus 

Nepos,  M.,  grandson. 

Virtus,  F.,  mrtue.f  Canut,  i^.,Jiead. 

^INGULAR.  ^ ^ 

Nom.  nepos 

Virtus 

caput 

Gen.  nepotis 

virtutis 

capitis 

Dat.  nepoti 

virtuti 

capiti 

Acc.  nepotem 

virtutem 

caput 

Voc.  nepos 

virtus 

caput 

Ahl.  nepote 

' virtute 

i-*eapite 

/ 

plural: 

Nom.  nepotes 

virtutes 

capita 

Gen.  nepotiim 

virtutum 

capitum 

Dat.  nepotil>«is 

virtutibuS/  - ■ 

capitibus 

2 See  1,  foot-note. 


1 8ee  1. 


33 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


Acc.  nepotes  virtutes  capita 

Voc.  nepotes  virtutes  capita 

Adi.  nepotil>as  virtutil>us  capitil>as 

1.  Stems  and  Case-Suffixes. — In  these  Paradigms  observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  are  lapid^  aetdt^  nepot^  mrtut.^  and  caput. 

2)  That  mlUs  has  the  variable  vowel,  e,  i,  and  caput.^  u,  i ; see  57,  2. 

3)  That  the  dental  d or  t is  diopped  before  s : lapis  for  lapids.,  aetds  toi 
aetdts.,  miles  for  mllets.^  virtus  for  virtuts  ; see  36,  2. 

4)  That  the  case-suffixes,  except  in  the  neuter.^  caput  (46,  2),  are  the  same 
as  those  given  above  ; see  57. 

5)  That  the  neuter.,  caput.,  has  no  case-suffix  in  the  Nominative,  Accusa- 
tive, and  Vocative  Singular,  a in  the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative 
Plural,  and  the  suffixes  of  masculine  and  feminine  nouns  in  the  other  cases. 

2.  Neuter  stems  in  at  drop  t in  the  Nominative  Singular  and  end  in  a : 
Nom.,  poema.,  GtQn..,  poematis  ; Stem,  poemat.  These  nouns  sometimes  have 
Is  for  ihus  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural : poematis  for  poematibus. 

3.  For  Synopsis  of  Declension,  see  69,  78-84. 


59,  Stems  ending  in  a Guttural  : o or  G. 


Kex,  : 

' .syr  Mng. 

Nom.  rex 
Gen.  regis 
Dat.  regi 
Acc.  regem 
Voc.  rex 
Ahl.  rege 


Nom.  reges 
Gen.  regiiim 
Dat.  regilms 
Acc.  reges 
Voc.  reges 
Ahl.  ' regillus 


Judex,  M.  & F., 
judge. 

^ "N ' Singular. 


RMix,  F.,  Dux,  M.  & F., 


root  ^ V leader. 


judex 

judicis 

judici 

judicemi 

judex 

judice  ^ ^ 

^ . PLURA 

judices 

judictim 

judicil>iis 

judices 

judices 

judicil>iis 


radix 

radicis 

radicl 

radicem 

radix 

radice 

radices 

radiciiiii 

radlcil>iis 

radices 

radices 

radlcil>iis 


dux 
ducis 
duci  j Q 
ducem  ^ 
dux 
duce 

duces 

ducum 

ducil>us 

duces 

duces 

ducil>us 


1.  Stems  and  Case-Suffixes. — In  the  Paradigms  observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  are  reg.,Judic,  rddlc,  and  due  ; judic  with  the  variable 
vowel,  i,  e ; see  57,  2. 

2)  That  the  case-suffixes  are  those  given  in  57. 

3)  That  s in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  unites  with  c or  ^ of 
the  stem  and  forms  x ; see  30. 

%.  For  Synopsis  of  Declension,  see  Nou^rs  in  x,  9X-9§. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


33 


60.  Stems  ejstdikg  m L,  m,  n,  or  r. 


Sol,  M., 

Consul,  M., 

Passer,  m.,  / 

Pater,  m.^ 

sun. 

consul. 

yarrow.  . 

father. 

^ Angular. 

Nom. 

sol 

consul 

passer 

^ pater 

Gen. 

sdlis 

consulis 

passeris  rpatris 

Dat. 

soli 

consuli 

passeri 

patri 

Acc. 

solem 

consulem 

passerem 

patrem 

Voc. 

sol 

consul 

passer 

pater 

Ahl. 

sole 

j consule 

passere 

patre 

Nom. 

soles  1 

consules 

passeres 

patres 

Gen. 

consulum 

passerum 

patrum 

Dat. 

soli1>iis 

consulibus 

passeribus 

patribus 

Acc. 

soles 

consules 

passeres 

patres 

Voc. 

soles 

consules 

passeres 

patres 

Abl. 

solibus 

consulibus 

passeribus 

patribus 

Pastor,  M., 
. , : - ^shepherd. 

Leo,  M.,  1 

lion.  , . maiddn. 

^ SINGUIAR.'^-^  r : 

Carmen,  n., 
song. 

Nom. 

pastor 

leo 

virgo 

carmen  q 

Gen. 

pastoris 

leonis 

virginis 

carminis 

Dat. 

pastori 

leoni 

virgini 

carmini 

Acc. 

pastorem 

leonem 

virginem 

carmen 

Voc. 

pastor 

leo 

virgo 

carmen 

Adi. 

pastore 

leone 

PLURAL. 

virgine 

earmin  e 

Nom. 

pastores 

leones 

virgines 

carmina 

Gen. 

pastorum 

leonum 

virginum 

earmin  um 

Dat. 

pastoribus 

leonibus 

virginibus 

carminibus 

Acc. 

pastores 

leones 

virgines 

carmina 

Voc. 

pastores 

leones 

virgines 

carmina 

AU. 

pastoribus 

leonibus  ? 

virginibus 

carminibus 

1.  Stems  and  Case-Suffixes. — In  the  Paradigms  observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  are  sol^  consul^  passer^  pair ^ pastor^  leon^  mrgon^  and 
carmen. 


1 Many  monosyllables  want  the  Gen.  Plur.;  see  133,  5. 

That  is,  the  stem  is  pair  when  followed  by  a vowel ; but  when  r becomes  final,  it 
develops  e before  it,  ^Ti^patr  becomes  pater  ; see  29,  note. 

4 


34 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


2)  That  virgb  (virgon)  has  the  variable  vowel,  o,  i,  and  carmen^  e,  i. 

3)  That  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  s,  the  usual  case-suffix 
for  masculine  and  feminine  nouns,  is  omitted,  and  that  in  those  cases  the  stem 
pastor  shortens  o,  while  leon  and  virgon  drop  n ; see  31,  2,  2),  and  36,  5,  3). 

2.  Hiems,  the  only  stem  in  m,  takes  s in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative 
Singular.  Also  sanguis  (for  sangulns)^  blood,  and  Salamis  (for  Salamlns)^ 
Salamis,  which  drop  n before  s ; see  36,  3,  note  3. 

3.  Passer,  Pater. — Most  nouns  in  er  are  declined  like  passer^  but  those 
in  ter,  and  a few  others,  are  declined  \\k.e.  pater  ; see  77,  2. 

4.  Leo,  Virgo. ^Most  nouns  in  o are  declined  like  leb^  but  those  in  dc 
and  g-d,  with  a few  others,  are  declined  like  virgO  ; see  7^,  with  exceptions. 

5.  Four  stems  in  or  change  o to  ^ / see  77,  4. 

6.  For  the  Locative  in  the  Third  Declension,  see  66,  4. 

7.  For  Synopsis  of  Declension,  see  73,  75-77. 


Flos,  M., 

Jus,  N.,' 

/VkiAy 
Opus,  N.,- 

Corpps,  N., 

flower. 

SINGULAR.  ‘ r-j  i 

body. 

e t i C j lAyC 

JSFom. 

flos 

jus 

opus 

corporis  j 

Gen. 

floris 

juris 

operis 

Bat. 

flori 

juri 

operi 

corpori 

Acc. 

florem 

jfls 

opus 

corpus 

Voc. 

flos 

jus 

opus 

corpus 

Abl. 

flore 

jure 

opere 

corpore 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

flores 

jura 

opera 

corpora 

Gen. 

florum 

juram 

operum 

corporam 

Bat. 

floril>iiS 

jurilias 

operibas 

corporibas 

Acc. 

flores 

jura 

opera 

corpora 

Voc. 

flores 

jura 

opera 

corpora 

Abl. 

floril>iis 

juribas 

operibas 

corporibas 

1.  Stems  and  Case-Suffixes. — In  the  Paradigms  observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  diXQ  flos^jus^  opos^^  and  rorpos. 

2)  That  opus  has  the  variable  vowel,  e,  u,  and  corpus^  o,  u. 

3)  That  s of  the  stem  becomes  r between  two  vowels : Jlds^  floris  (foi 
fiosis)  ; see  31,  1. 

4)  That  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  omit  the  case-suffix;  see  60,  1,  3). 

2.  For  Synopsis  of  Declension,  see  79,  80,  83-84. 


1 Opos  occurs  in  early  Latin.  In  05,  from  the  Primary  Suffix  as  (330),  o was  wetik- 
ened  to  u in  the  Nom.,  Acc.,  and  Voc.  Sing,  of  opus  and  corpus^  while  in  all  the  othej 
case  forms  it  was  weakened  to  e in  opus^  but  retained  unchanged  in  corpus ; see  33. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


So 


CLASS  II.  — I STEMS. 


62.  Stems  e^^dihig  ijst  l. — Nouns  in  is  and  §s,  not 
increasing  in  the  Genitive.^  ^ 


Tussis,  F., 

Turris,  f.. 

Ignis,  M.,  Hostis,  m.  & f.. 

Kubes,^  F., 

cough. 

tower. 

fire.  enemy. 

cloud. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

tussis 

turris 

Ignis 

hostis 

nubes 

Gen. 

tussis 

turris 

Ignis 

hostis 

nubis 

Dat. 

tussi 

turri 

Igni 

hosti 

nubi 

Acc. 

tussim 

turrim,  em  Ignem 

hostem 

nubem 

Voc. 

tussis 

turris 

Ignis 

hostis 

nubes 

Abl. 

tussi 

turri,  e 

‘igni,, e 

PLURAL.  . 

hoste 

nube 

Nom. 

tusses 

turres 

ignes 

hostes 

nubes 

Gen. 

tussiiim 

turriwm 

Ignium 

hostium 

nubium 

Dat. 

tussil>iis 

turril>iis 

Ignil>us 

hostii>us 

nubil>us 

Acc, 

tusses,  is 

turres,  is 

ignes,  is 

hostes,  is 

nubes,  is 

Voc 

tusses 

turres 

Ignes 

hostes 

nubes 

Ahl. 

tussiliiis 

turrilms 

Ignil>us 

hostil>us 

nubifeus 

I. 

Paradigms.- 

—Observe — 

A'  : A 

1.  That  the  stems  are  tussi.,  turri.,  Igni.,  hosti.,  and  nuhi.^ 

2.  That  the  case-endings,  including  the  characteristic  i,  which  disappears 
m certain  cases,  are  as  follows : 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Nom. 

is,  es 

es 

Gen. 

is 

iura 

Dat. 

i 

ibus 

Acc. 

ira,  era 

es,  is 

Voc. 

is 

es 

Ahl. 

i,  e 

ibus 

1 That  is,  having  as  many  syllables  in  the  Nora.  Sing,  as  in  the  Gen  Sing. 

2 Observe  (1)  that  tussis,  turris,  Ignis,  and  hostis  differ  in  declension  only  in  the  Acc. 
and  Abl.  Sing.,  tussis  showing  the  final  i of  the  stem  in  both  those  cases,  turris  some- 
times in  both,  ignis  sometimes  in  the  Abl.,  not  in  the  Acc.,  hostis  in  neither  (2)  that  nubes 
differs  from  the  other  four  in  taking  es  instead  of  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing. 

3 Nouns  in  es,  Gen.  is,  are  b^st  treated  as  i-steras,  although  some  of  them  were 
originally  s-stems  (61).  Thus,  originally  the  stem  of  nubes  was  itself  nvbes,  but  s was 
finally  treated  as  the  Nom.  suffix,  and  the  word  was  accordingly  declined  like  the  large 
class  of  ^-nouns  mentioned  under  63,  V.  The  origin  of  i-stems  is  obscure.  A few  cor- 
respond to  -i-stems  in  the  cognate  tongues,  as  Ignis,  ovis,  turris ; a few  are  weakened 
from  a-Btems  or  o-stems,  as  foris,  a door,  Gr.  dvpa,  imber— imbris,  rain-storm,  Gr. 
6/a/3po9;  some  are  formed  from  s-stems,  as  nubes,  just  mentioned.  Upon  the  general 
subject  of  i-stems,  see  Koby,  pp.  136-149 ; Schleicher,  pp.  384,  432,  453 ; Corssen,  I.  2S1, 
571,  733  seq. ; II.  227;  Merguet,  pp.  36-40,  51,  67,  95  etc. 


36 


THIRD  DECLENSION 


II.  Like  TUSSIS — Acc.  im,  Abl.  i — are  declined — 

1.  Buris^  plough-tail ; rdvis^  hoarseness  ; sitis^  thirst. 

2.  In  the  Singular:  (1)  Names  of  rive'rs  and  places  in  is  not  increasing  in 
the  Genitive:  Tiberis^  Hispalis ; see  583.  (2)  Greek  nouns  in  is,  Gen.  is^ 
and  some  others. 

III.  Like  TURRIS — Acc.  im,  em,  Abl.  i,  e — are  declined — 

Cldvis^  key ; febris^  fever ; messis^  harvest ; ndvis^  ship ; puppic^  stern ; 
rsstis^  rope  ; securis^  axe  ; suentis ^ sowing;  strigilis^  strigil. 

1.  Araris^  or  Avar  (for  Araris) the  Saone,  and  Liger  (for  Ligeris)p  the 
Loire,  have  Acc.  im,  em,  Abl.  i,  e. 

lY.  Like  ignis — Acc.  em,  Abl.  i,  e — are  declined — 

Amnis^  river;  anguis^  serpent;  avis^  bird;  bllis^  bile;  cdvis^  citizen; 
cldssis^  fleet ; collis^  hill ; finis ^ end ; orbis ^ circle  ; postis^  post ; unguis^  nail, 
and  a few  others. 

Note  1. — Adjectives  in  er  (for  Ws)  and  those  in  is  have  the  Ablative  in  i (153, 
154).  According!}’-,  when  such  adjectives  are  used  substantively,  the  I is  generally  re- 
tained : September,  Septembri,  September;  familiaris, familiari,  friend.  But  adjec- 
tives used  as  proper  names  have  e : JuvenCdis,  Juvenale,  »Juvenal. 

Note  2. — Imber  (for  imbris),  storm  ; vesper  (for  vesperis),  evening,  and  a few  others, 
sometimes  have  the  Ablative  in  i. 

Y.  Like  hostis — Acc.  em,  Abl.  e — are  declined  all  nouns  in  is,  Gen. 
is,  not  provided  for  under  II.,  III.,  and  lY.^ 

YI.  Like  nubes  are  declined  all  nouns  in  es,  Gen.  isA 

63.  Stems  eetdimg  isr  I. — Neuters  in  e,  al,  and  ar. 


Mare,  sea. 

Animal,  gjiimal. 

Calcar, 

spur. 

^ SINGULAR. 

Case-Endings. 

Nom.  mare 

animal  y 

calcar 

Gen.  maris 

animalis 

calcaris 

is 

Dat.  mari 

animali 

calcari 

I 

Acc.  mare 

animal 

calcar 

e — ® 

Voc.  mare 

animal 

calcar 

e — 

Abl.  mari  ® 

animali 

calcari 

I 

1 The  shortening  of  Araris  to  Arar  and  of  Ligeris  to  Liger  is  similar  to  the  short 
ening  oi puerus  to  puer  ; see  51,  2,  4) ; 36,  5,  2),  note. 

2 Names  of  months  are  adjectives  used  substantively.  Originally  mensis,  month,  was 
understood. 


3 Except  canis  eenA  juvenis,  which  are  consonant-stems,  but  have  assumed  i in  the 
Nom.  Sing.  In  the  plural  they  have  um  in  the  Gen  and  es  in  the  Acc.  Apis,  mensis,  . 
and  volucris  often  have  um  for  ium  in  the  Gen. 

4 Except  strues  and  vdtes,  which  generally  have  um  in  Gen.  PI.,  and  sedes,  which  has 
um  or  ium.  Compes,  Gen.  edis,  has  also  ium. 

® See  2 below. 

® The  dash  here  implies  that  the  case-ending  is  sometimes  wanting. 


jlCy/ 


Nbm.  maria 
Gen.  mariam 
Dat.  maril>as 
Acc.  maria 
Voc.  maria 
Abl.  marilms 


animalia 

animaliam 

animalil>as 

animalia 

animalia 

animalil>as 


calcaria 

calcariam 

calcaril>as 

calcaria 

calcaria 

calcaritoas 


37 


la 

ium 

ibus 

ia 

ia 

ibus 


1.  Paradigms. — Observe — 

1)  That  the  stem-ending  i is  changed  to  e in  the  Nominative,  Accusative, 
and  Vocative  Singular  of  mare^  and  dropped  in  the  same  cases  of  animal  (for 
animale)  and  calcar  (for  calcare) ; see  34,  1,  note ; 37  ; 31,  2,  2). 

2)  That  the  case -endings  include  the  characteristic  i. 

2.  The  following  have  e in  the  Ablative  Singular: — (1)  Names  of  towns 
in  e ; Praeneste. — (2)  Generally  r'ete.^  net,  and  in  poetry  sometimes  mare. 

Note.— Neuters  in  ai\  with  a short  in  the  Genitive,  are  consonant-stems : nectar^ 
nectaris^  nectar;  also  sal^  salt,  and /cZr,  corn. 


64.  Stems  ending  in  i. — Nouns  in  s and  x generally 
preceded  hy  a consonant,  _ , ^ ~ ^ ^ 


Cliens,  m.  & F., 

Urbs,  F., 

Ars,  F., 

Mtis,'  M., 

client. 

City.  , 

citadel. 

mouse. 

\ ^ SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

cliens 

^ urbs 

arx® 

mus 

Gen. 

clientis 

urbis 

arcis 

muris  ^ 

Pat. 

clienti 

urbi 

arci 

muri 

Acc. 

clientem 

urbem 

arcem 

murem 

Voc. 

cliens 

urbs 

arx 

mus 

Ahl. 

cliente 

urbe 

arce 

mure 

’ Nom.  clientes 

PLURAL. 

urbes 

arces 

mures 

Gen. 

clientium 

urbiiim 

arcium 

murium 

Pat. 

clientiiiiis 

urbil>iis 

arcil>us 

murilius 

Acc. 

clientes,  is 

urbes,  is 

arces,  is 

mures,  is 

Voc. 

clientes 

urbes 

arces 

mures 

Abl. 

clientil>iis 

urbiliiis 

ar  cillus 

murilius 

Cliens  is  for  dientis^  urhs  for  urMs,  arx  for  arcis,  and  mus  for  mvsis ; see  36.  5, 
2),  note.  Mus,  originally  an  s-stem,  Greek  /ixu?,  became  an  «-stem  in  Latin  by  assuming  i. 

2 The  vowel  e is  here  short  before  nt,  but  long  before  ns;  see  16,  note  2.  Indeed,  it 
seems  probable  that  nt  and  nd  shorten  a preceding  vowel,  as  ns  lengthens  it.  See  Mul- 
ler, p.  2T ; Ritschl,  Rhein.  Museum,  xxxi.,  p.  488. 

3 JTin  arx—cs,  c belonging  to  the  stem,  and  s being  the  Nom.  suffix. 

4 Muris  is  for  musis  ; s changed  to  r between  two  vowels , see  31,1. 


38 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


1.  Paradigms. — Observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  are  clienti^  urhi^  arci^  and  murL 

2)  That  these  nouns  are  declined  in  the  singular  precisely  like  consonant- 
stems,  and  in  the  plural  precisely  like  all  other  masculine  and  feminine 
i-stems.i 

2.  This  class  of  ^-sterns  includes — 

,1)  Most  nouns  in  ns  and  rs:‘^  cliens^  clientis^  client;  cohors^  cohortis^ 
cohort. 

2)  Monosyllables  in  s and  x preceded  by  a consonant, ^ and  a few  in  5 
and  X preceded  by  a vowel : ^ urhs^  city ; arx^  citadel ; lls^  strife ; nox^ 
night. 

3)  Names  of  nations  in  as  and  Is^  or,  if  plural,  in  dies  and  lies  ^ Arjplnds^ 
pi.  Ar^lndtes^  an  Arpinatian,  the  Arpinates  ; Samnis^  pi.  Samnites^  the 
Samnites. 

4)  Optimates^  the  aristocracy ; Penates^  the  household  gods,  and  occasion- 
ally other  nouns  in  as. 


Note  1.— flesh,  has  a form  in  is^  carnis  (for  carinis\  from  which  are  formed 
carni^  carnium,,  etc.  ^ 

Note  2. — Pars,  part,  sometimes  has  partim  in  the  Accusative. 

Note  3.— P?7s,  country,  sors,  lot,  supellex,,  furniture,  and  a few  other  words  some- 
times have  the  Ablative  in  ^ 

cA 


Ua 


65.  SuMMAKY  OF  l-STEMS. — To  l-stems  belong — 

1.  All  nouns  in  is  and  es  which  do  not  increase  in  the  Genitive  ; 
see  62.  Here  belong  also — 


1)  Names  of  months  in  her  (for  hris) : September,,  October,,  etc. : see  62,  N.  1. 

2)  The  following  i^ns  in  ^sr-and  ter  (for  bris  and  tris) ; imber,,  storm; 
linter,,  boat ; uter,,  j^thern  sack ; renter,,  belly ; generally  also  Insuber,,  an 

2.  Neuters  iii  e,  al  (fQT^^^e)  and  ar  ; see  63  ; also  63, 

3.  Many  nouns  in  s and  x — especially  (1)  nouns  in  ns  ana 
and  (3)  monosyllables  in  s and  x preceded  by  a consonant ; see 


64,  3. 


1 Nouns  thus  declined  are  most  conveniently  treated  as  ^-nouns,  though  the  stem 
appears  to  end  in  a consonant  in  the  Sing.,  and  in  i in  the  Plur.  In  some  of  these  nouns 
the  stem  has  lost  its  final  i in  the  Sing.,  while  in  others  it  ended  originally  in  a con- 
sonant, but  afterward  assumed  i in  the  Plur.,  at  least  in  certain  cases;  see  62,  I.,  foot- 
note 

2 Some  of  these  often  have  um  in  poetry  and  sometimes  even  in  prose,  as  parens 
parent,  generally  has. 

3 Except  {ops)  opis  and  the  Greek  nouns,  gr^ps,  lynx,  sphinx, 

* Namely,  faux,  glls,  Its,  mas,  nix,  nox,  os  (ossis),  vis,  generally  fraus  and  mus. 


THIRD  DECLENSIOK 


39 


66.  Special  Paradigms. 


Sils, 

M.  & F., 

Bos,  M.  & F. 

, Nix,  F., 

Senex,  m.. 

Vis,  F., 

swine. 

OX,  cow. 

snow. 

SINGULAR. 

old  man. 

force. 

Horn. 

SUS 

bos  ^ 

nix 

senex 

vis 

Gen. 

suis 

bovis 

nivis 

senis 

vis  2 , 

Dat. 

sul 

bovi 

nivi 

seni 

vi‘-^ 

Acc. 

suem 

bovem 

nivem 

senem 

vim 

Voc. 

sus 

bos 

nix 

senex 

vis 

Abl. 

sue 

bove 

nive 

PLURAL. 

sene 

vi 

Horn. 

sues 

boves 

( boviiiii 

nives 

senes 

vires 

Gen. 

suum 

( bowm 

niviiim 

senum 

virium 

Dat.  j 

1 suil>iis 
\ sul>iis 

j bol>iis  ^ 
{ bul>iis  ^ 

nivibiis 

senibus 

viribus 

Acc. 

sues 

boves 

nives 

senes 

vires 

Voc. 

sues 

boves 

nives 

senes 

vires 

Abl.  ^ 

[ suilms 

! sul>iis 

j bol>iis 
( bul>iis 

nivibiis 

senibus 

viribus 

1.  The  Stems  are  su ; hov  ; nig  (nix=nigs),  mv,  nivi  senec^  sen;  vi 
(sing.),  viri  (for  vlsi,  plur.);  ^ see  31,  1. 

2.  Sus,  and  grus,  crane^  the  only  u stems  in  this  declension,  are  de- 
clined alike,  except  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural,  where  grus  is 
regular:  gruibus. 

3.  Juppiter,  Jupiter ^ is  thus  declined:  Juppiter,  Jovis,  Jovi,  Jovem, 
Juppiter,  Jove.  Stems.  Juppiter  and  Jov. 

4.  Locative. — Many  names  of  towns  have  a Locative  Singular  in  i or  e 
denoting  the  place  in  which  (45,  2).  Thus  : 


JVbm.  Karthago, 


Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 

Ahl 

Loc. 


Karthaginis, 

Karthagini, 

Karthaginem, 

Karthago, 

Karthagine, 

Karthagini  or  e, 


Carthage., 
of  Carthage., 
for  Carthage., 
Carthage., 
0 Carthage., 
from  Carthage, 
at  Carthage. 


Tibur, 

Tiburis, 

Tiburi, 

Tibur, 

Tibur, 
Tibure, 
Tiburi  or  e. 


Tibur, 
of  Tibur, 
for  Tibur, 
Tibur, 
O Tibur, 
from  Tibur, 
at  Tibur. 


^ Bo8  = bovs,  bous ; bobus,  bubus  = bovibus,  boubus. 

2 The  Gen.  and  Dat.  Sing, — ms,  — are  rare. 

3 For  nigri,  from  which  nig  is  formed  by  first  dropping  i and  then  - 
3,  note  1. 

4 Vi  is  formed  from  risi  by  first  dropping  i and  then  s. 


see  27,  36^ 


40 


GREEK  NOUNS. 


67.  Case-Suffixes  and  Case-Endings.’ 

SINGULAR. 


Consonant  Stems.  I-Stems.  . 


Masc.  and  Fem. 

Nedt. 

Maso.  and  Fem. 

Netjt. 

Nom. 

S,-2 

2 

is,  es,  s 

e,- 2 

Gen. 

is 

is 

is 

is 

Dat. 

I 

i 

i 

i 

Acc. 

em 

— 

im,  em 

Voc. 

8 

— 

is,  es,  8 

e — 

Abl. 

e 

e 

i,e 

i 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

es 

a 

es 

ia 

Gen. 

um 

um 

ium 

ium 

Dat. 

ibus 

ibus 

ibus 

ibus 

Acc. 

es 

a 

es,  is 

ia 

Voc. 

es 

a 

es 

ia 

• Abl. 

ibus 

ibus 

ibus 

ibus 

Note. — The  following-  irregular  case-endings  occur : ^ 

1.  E,  for  in  the  Dat.  Sing. : ^ aert  for  aerl. 

2.  Eis^  for  Is,  in  the  Acc.  Plur. : clveis  for  cItJis,  clves^ 

3.  For  Greek  Endings,  see  68. 

GREEK  NOUJSTS. 

68.  Most  Greek  nouns  of  the  third  declension  are  en- 
tirely regular,  but  a few  retain  certain  peculiarities  of  the 
Greek.  The  following  are  examples  : 


Lampas,  f., 

Phryx,  M.  & F., 

Heros,  m., 

torch. 

Phrygian. 

hero. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.  lampas 

Phryx 

heros 

Gen.  lampadis,  os 

Phrygis,  os 

herois 

Dat.  lampadi,  i 

Phrygi,  i 

heroi,  i 

Acc.  lampadem,  st 

Phrygem,  a. 

hero  em,  a 

Voc.  lampas 

Phryx 

heros 

Abl.  lampade 

Phryge 

heroe 

^ On  the  distinction  between  Case-Suffixes  and  Case-Endings,  see  46, 1,  and  47,  note  3. 

2 The  dash  denotes  that  the  case-ending  is  wanting. 

3 To  these  should  be  added  for  early  Latin— 1)  us  and  es  in  the  Gen.  Sing. : hominus 
= hominis  ; salutes  = salutis;  2)  Id  and  e in  the  Abl.  Sing. : con^entidnld  = conven- 
tione; patre  = patre ; 3)  is  and  eis  in  the  Nom.  Plur.  of  i-nouns  : Jineis,  finis  =, fines. 
On  the  Case-Endings  of  the  Third  Declension  in  early  Latin,  see  Wordsworth,  pp 
68-73;  Kiihner,  I.,  pp.  173-179. 

* This  e is  generally  long. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION 


41 


Nom.  lampades,  es 
Gen.  lampadiim. 
Dat.  lampadil>iis 
Acc.  lampades,  as 
Voc.  lampades,  es 
Abl.  lampadil>us 


PLURAL. 

Phryges,  es 
Phrygam 
Phrygibus 
Phryges,  as 
Phryges,  es 
Phrygibas 


heroes,  es 
heroam 
heroibas 
heroes,  as 
heroes,  es 
heroibas 


Pericles,  m., 
Pericles. 

Nom.  Pericles 
Gen.  Periclis,  I 
Dat.  Pericli,  i 

Acc.  Periclem,  ea,  ea 

Voc.  Pericles,  es,  e 
Ahl.  Pericle 


Paris,  M.,  Dido,  f., 
Paris.  Dido. 

SINGULAR.^ 

Paris  Dido 

Paridis,  os  Didus,  onis 

Paridi,  i Dido,  dni,  dni 

(Paridem,  a ^ _ 

. Dido,  onem 
/Parim,  la 

Pari  Didd 

Paride  Didd,  due 


Orpheus,  m., 
Orpheus. 

Orpheus  ^ 
Orph-eos,  ei,  i 
Orph-ei,  ei,  i,  eo 

Orphea,  eam 

Orpheu 

Orpheo 


1.  Observe  that  these  Paradigms  fluctuate  in  certain  cases — (1)  between 
the  Latin  and  the  Greek  forms  : lampadis.^  os  ; lampadem^  a ; h'eroes.,  as : — (2) 
between  difterent  declensions:  Pericles,  between  Dec.  I.,  Periden.^  Pericle.^ 
Dec.  II.,  PericU  (Gen.),  and  Dec.  III.,  Periclis.,  etc. : Orpheus,  between  Dec. 
II.,  Orphei.,  Orpheo.,  etc.,  and  Dec.  III.,  Orpheos.,  etc. 

2.  Nouns  in  ys  have  Gen.  yos^  ys.,  Acc.  ym.,  yn  : Othrys.,  Othryos^  Othrym., 
Othryn. 

3.  The  Vocative  Singular  drops  s — (1)  in  nouns  in  eus.,  ys.,  and  in  proper 
names  in  «5,  Gen.  antis : Atlas.,  Atld : — (2)  generally  in  nouns  in  is.,  and 
sometimes  in  other  words : Pari. 

4.  In  the  Genitive  Plural,  the  ending  on  occurs  in  a few  titles  of  books : 
Metamorphoses  (title  of  a poem).  Metamorphoseon. 

5.  In  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  the  ending  si.,  before  vowels  sin., 
occurs  in  poetry : Troades.,  Troasin. 

6.  A few  neuters  used  only  in  the  Nominative,  xlccusative,  and  Vocative 
have  os  in  the  Singular  and  e in  the  Plural : melos.,  mele.,  song. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

I.  Nouns  ending  in  a Vowel. 

69.  Nouns  in  a : 3 Genitive  in  atis  : Stem  in  at : 

poema,  poem.,  poematis,  poemat. 

' The  Plural  is  of  course  g’enerally  wanting-;  see  130,  2. 

2 Eu  is  a diphthong  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc. ; ei  sometimes  a diphthong  in  the  Gen 
and  Dat. 

2 These  are  of  Greek  oriein. 


42 


STNOFSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


70.  Nouns  in  e : 

mare,  sea., 

71,  Nouns  in  i:  1 

sinapi,  mustard., 


Genitive  in  is : 
maris. 

Genitive  in  is : 
sinapis. 


Stem  in  i : 
mari. 
Stem  in  i : 
sinapi. 


Note.— Many  nouns  in  I are  indeclinable.  Compounds  of  melt  have  itis  in  the  Geni 
tive  : oxymell.,  oxymelitis.,  oxyinel. 

72.  Nouns  in  6 or  5 : Genitive  in  onis  : Stem  in  5n : 

le6,  lion.,  leonis,  leon. 


Exceptions. — Genitive  in — 

1.  onis: — most  national  names  : Macedonian. 

2.  inis  : ^ — Apollo  ; liomO,  man ; nemO,  nobody  ; turbo,  whirlwind ; and 

nouns  in  do  and  go : grando,  grandinis,  hail ; virgO, 
virginis,  maiden  ; except — harpagO,  onis  ; ligO,  onis  ,• 
praedo,  onis,  also  comedo,  cudb,  mango,  spado,  unedo,  udo, 

3.  nis  : — carO,  carnis  (for  carinis'^),  flesh  ; see  64,  2,  note  1. 

4.  enis  : — Anio,  Anienis,  river  Anio  ; NeriO,  Nerienis. 

6.  us  : — a few  Greek  feminines  : l>ldo,  Didus  ; see  68. 

73.  Nouns  in  y 3 : Gen.  in  yis  (yos,  ys) : Stem  in  y : 

misy,  copperas,  misyis  (yos,  ys),  misy. 


II.  Nouns  ending  in  a Mute  or  Liquid. 

74.  Nouns  in  c : alec,  alecis,  pickle ; lac,  lactis,*  milk. 

75.  Nouns  in  1 : Genitive  in  lis  : Stem  in  1 : 

sol,  sun,  solis,  sol. 

Note. — F'el,fellis,  gall ; mel,  mellis,  honey ; sal,  salis,  salt.  On  neuters  in  al,  see  63. 

76.  Nouns  in  n : Genitive  in  nis  : Stem  in  n : 

paean,  paean,  paeanis,  paean, 

flumen,  stream,  fluminis,  flumen,  in. 

Note  1.— Nouns  in  en  have  the  variable  radical  vowel — e,  i;  see  60, 1,  2). 

Note  2.-^There  are  a few  Greek  words  in  on,  Gen.  in  onis,  ontis,  St.  in  on,  5nt : 
aedon,  aedonis,  nightingale ; Xenophon,  Xenophontis,  Xenophon. 

77.  Nouns  in  r : Genitive  in  ris  : Stem  in  r : 

career,  prison,  carceris,  career. 

1.  Nouns  in  ar,  ar:  (1)  ar,  G.  aris,  St.  ari ; Idr,  house ; {2)  par 

paris,  pair  ; far,  f arris,  corn  ; h'epar,  hepatis,  liver.  For  ar,  G.  dris,  and  ar, 
G iwis,  see  63. 

2.  Nouns  in  ter : Gen.  in  tris  : pater,  patris,  father ; except  later,  lateris, 

tile;  it  er,  itiner  is,  Juppiter,  Jovis ; and  Greek  nouns:  crater,  crdteris,\>o^\ 

1 These  are  of  Greek  origin. 

2 Stem  in  on,  in,  or  oni,  ini,  ni ; see  60, 1,  2). 

3 Nouns  in  y are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  often  indeclinable. 

4 The  only  nouns  in  c. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


43 


Note. — Imber  and  names  of  months  in  ber.have  bris  in  the  Genitive ; imber imbris^ 
shower;  September^  Septembria,  September;  see  63,  IV,,  notes  1 and  2. 

3.  Nouns  in  or : G.  oris,  St.  or : pastor^  pastoris^  shepherd ; hut  a few 
have  G.  oris,  St.  or:  arbor,,  arboris,,  tree;  aequor,,  sea;  marmor,,  marble. 
But  cor,  cordis,,  heart. 

4.  Four  in  ur : G.  oris,  St.  or : ebur,,  ivory  ; femur,,  thigh  ; jecur ^ liver ; 
robur,,  strength ; but  femur  has  2X^0  feminis,,  and  jecur,  jecinoris,  jecineris, 

jocineris. 

78.  Nouns  in  ut : Genitive  in  itis  : Stem  in  ut,  it : 

caput,  head,,  capitis,  caput,  it. 


III.  Nouns  ending  in  S. 

79.  Nouns  in  as  : Genitive  in  atis  : Stem  in  at : 

aetas,  age,  aetatis,  aetat. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  aris: — mas,  maris,  a male; — stem,  mas,  mari;  see  31,  1. 

2.  asis  : — vds,  vdsis,  vessel.^ 

3.  assis : — as,  assis,  an  as  (a  coin). 

4.  antis : — only  masculine  Greek  nouns  : adamas,  antis,  adamant. 

Note. — Anas,  duck,  and  neuter  Greek  nouns  in  aa  have  atis : anas,  anatis.  Vas, 
surety,  Arcas,  Arcadian,  and  feminine  Greek  nouns  in  as  have  adis:  vas,  radis, 
lampas,  lampadis.'^ 

80.  Nouns  in  es : Genitive  in  is  : Stem  in  i : ^ 

nubes,  cloud,  . ntibis,  nubi. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  edis: — hires,  heredis,  heir;  merces,  reward. 

2.  edis  : — pes,  pedis,  foot,  and  its  compounds  ; compes,  edis,  a fetter, 

8.  eris: — Ceres,  Cererisj 

4.  etis : — quies,  rest,  with  compounds,  inquils,  requies,  and  a few  Greek 

words:  lehes,  tapes, 

5.  etis  : — ahies,  fir-tree ; arils,  ram  ; parils,  wall. 

Note. — Bea,  bessis,  two-thirds ; aes,  aeris,*  copper ; praes,  praedis,  surety. 

81  Nouns  in  es  : Genitive  in  itis  : Stem  in  et,  it : 

miles,  soldier,  militis,  milet,  it. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  etis : — interpres,  interpreter  ; seges,  crop ; teges,  covering. 

2.  idis  : — obses,  hostage ; praeses,  president ; see  57,  2. 

* Vds  is  the  only  stem  in  s which  does  not  change  s to  r*  between  two  vowels ; seo 
61, 1,  3). 

^ Greek  nouns  sometimes  have  ados  for  adis, 

3 But  see  64, 1. 

4 See  61, 1,  3). 


44 


SYJSrOFSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION, 


82.  Nouns  in  is : Genitive  in  is  : Stem  in  i : 

avis,  birdy  avis,  avi. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  eris  : — chiiSy  cineris  ashes;  cucumis  y cucumber;  dust ; vomis^ 

ploughshare. 

2.  idis  : — capiSy  cup  ; cassisy  helmet ; cuspisy  spear ; lapisy  stone ; pro- 

mulsisy  antepast,  and  a few  Greek  words : as  tyranniSy 
idiSy  tyranny.  Sometimes  ibiSy  and  tigris. 

3.  inis : — pollis  or  polleUy  flour ; sanguisy  blood. 

Note. — GllSy  gliriSy  dormouse;  llSy  lltiSy  strife;  semiSy  semissisy  half  an  as;  BlSy 
Ditis;  QuirlSy  QulrlUs;  SamniSy /Samnitis. 

83.  Nouns  in  os  : Genitive  in  oris  : Stem  in  os  : 

mos,  Gustomy  mOris,  mos. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  otis : — coSy  cotiSy  whetstone;  doSy  dowry;  nepoSy  grandson;  sacerdoSy 

priest ; and  a few  Greek  words. 

2.  odis  : — cusidSy  custodisy  guardian ; see  36,  2. 

3.  ois  : — a few  masculine  Greek  nouns : heroSy  hero ; MinoSy  Tros. 

Note. — Arbos  or  arbor y arboriSy  tree ; oSy  ossiSy  bone ; bos,  boviSy  ox ; see  66. 

84.  Nouns  in  us,  Gen.  in  uris  or  utis  : stem  in  us  or  ut. 

1.  uris  : — ct'uSy  leg;  Jus,  right;  Jus,  soup;  jnuSy  mouse;  pics,  pus;  rus, 

country ; tits  {thus),  incense  ; tellus,  earth. 

2.  utis  : — juventus,  youth  ; salus,  safety  ; senectus,  old  age  ; servitus, 

servitude ; virtus,  virtue  ; see  36,  2. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  udis  : — incus,  anvil ; palus,  marsh ; subscus,  dovetail. 

2.  uiG : — grits,  gruis,  crane ; sits,  swine. 

3.  untis : — a few  Greek  names  of  places  : Trapezus,  untis. 

4.  odis  : — Greek  compounds  in  pus : tripus,  tripodis,  tripod. 

'^OTV..—FrauSyfraudiSy  fraud;  lauSy  laudiSy  praise;  see  64,  2,  2),  foot-note.  For 
Greek  nouns  in  euSy  see  68. 

85.  Nouns  in  us : Gen.  in  eris  or  oris : stem  in  os. 

1.  eris: — latus,  lateris,  stem, So  also:  acus,  foedus,  funus, 

germs,  glomus,  munus,  olus,  onus,  opus,  pondus,  riidus,  scelus,  sidus,  ulcus, 
vellus,  Venus,  viscus,  vulnus. 

2.  oris  : — corpus,  corporis,  body  : stem,  corpos.^  So  also  decus,  dedecus, 

1 Stem  ciniSy  dner  for  dues  with  variable  vowel  iy  e;  see  24,  1 ; 31, 1 ; and  57,  2. 

2 Greek  nouns  sometimes  have  idos  or  even  ios  for  idis  ; Salamis  has  Salaminis; 
SimoiSy  Simoentis. 

3 See  61, 1,  foot-note. 


SYJ^OPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSIOH, 


45 


facinus^  faenus^  frigus^  lepus^  litus^  nemus^  pectus^  pecus^  penus^  pignus^  ster- 
cus^ tempus^  tergus. 

'i^orE..— Pecus  ^ pecudis^  a head  of  cattle;  Ligus^  Liguris.,  Ligurian;  see  31. 

86.  Nouns  in  ys  : 1 Genitive  in  yis,  yos,  ys  : Stem  in  y : 

Othrys,  Othryos,  Othry. 


87.  Nouns  in  bs  : 

urbs,  city.^ 


Genitive  in  bis ; 

urbis, 


88.  Nouns  in  ms  : Genitive  in  mis : 

biems,  winter.^  hiemis, 


Stem  in  bi : 2 
urbi. 
Stem  in  m : 
hiem. 


89.  Nouns  in  eps  : Genitive  in  ipis  : 

princeps,  prince.,  principis. 


Stem  in  ep,  ip. 
princep,  ip. 


Note.— But  auceps.,  aucupis.,  fowler.  Other  nouns  in  ps  retain  the  stem-vowel 
unchanged ; merops.,  meropis.,  bee-eater.  Gryps.,  griffin,  has  gryphis. 


90.  Nouns  in  s after  1,  n,  or  r : Gen.  in  tis  : 

puls,  drothf  pultis, 

mens,  mind.,  mentis, 

ars,  art,  artis. 


Stem  in  ti : 
pulti, 
menti.  3 
arti. 


^OTE..— Frons,  frondis,  leaf ; glams,  glandis,  acorn ; juglans,  juglandis,  walnut ; 
see  64,  2. 


IV.  Nouns  ending  in  X. 


91 . Nouns  in  ax : Genitive  in  acis  : Stem  in  ac  : 

pax,  peace,  pacis,  pac. 

'^OTE.— Fax,  fads,  torch;  so  also  a few  Greek  nouns.  Astyanax,  actis;  so  a few 
Greek  names  of  men. 

92.  Nouns  in  ex:  Genitive  in  ecis  or  egis : Stem  in  ec,  eg: 

1.  ecis: — dlex,  pickle;  vervex,  wether. 

2.  egis  : — lex,  law ; rex,  king,  and  their  compounds. 

93.  Nouns  in  ex : Genitive  in  icis  : Stem  in  ic,  ec : 

judge,  judicis,  jiidic,  ec. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  ecis  : — nex,  murder  ; fenisex,  mower;  {prex),  precis,  prayer. 

2.  egis  : — grex,  flock ; aquilex,  water-inspector. 

3.  igis : — remex,  remigis,  rower;  see  24,  1. 

Note.— iT’creaj,  faecis,  lees ; senex,  sends,  old  man  (66) ; supellex,  supellectilis, 
furniture. 


94.  Nouns  in  ix : Genitive  in  icis  : Stem  in  ic  : 

radix,  root,  radicis,  radic. 


1 These  are  of  Greek  origin  ; a few  of  them  have  ydis:  chlamys,  chlamydis,  cloak. 

2 Dissyllables  have  the  stem  in  h. 

8 Dissyllables  in  ns  have  the  stem  in  t. 


46 


GENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


95.  Nouns  in  ix : Genitive  in  icis : Stem  in  ic  : 

calix,  cup^  calicis,  calic. 

Note. — Nix^  nivis  (66),  snow;  strix,  strigis,,  screech-owl;  a few  Gallic  names  alsc 
have  the  Genitive  in  igis : Dumnorix,^  Orgetorix. 

96.  Nouns  in  ox  or  ox  : vocis.,  voice ; nox.,  noctis.,  night. 

Note.— There  are  also  a few  national  names  in  ox,  Gen.  in  ocis  or  ogis  : Cappa' 
dox,  Cappadocis;  Allohrox,  Allohrogis. 

97.  Nouns  in  ux  : Genitive  in  ucis  : Stem  in  uc  : 

dux,  leader.,  ducis,  duc. 

Note  1. — Tmx,  lucis.,  light;  Pollux,  Pollucis,  Pollux;  frux,  frugis,  fruit. 

Note  2. — Greek  nouns  in  yx  and  yx  are  variously  declined:  Eryx,  ifrycw,  Eryx; 
hombyx,  hombygis,  silkworm;  Styx,  Stygis,  Styx;  coccpx,  coccygis,  cuckoo;  onyx, 
onychis,  onyx. 

98.  Nouns  in  x after  n or  r : Genitive  in  cis  : Stem  in  ci : 

arx,  citadel.,  arcis,  arci. 

Note  1. — Conjunx  or  conjux,  conjugis,  spouse. 

Note  2.— Most  nouns  in  x preceded  by  n are  of  Greek  origin  : lynx,  lyncis,  lynx ; 
phalanx,  phalangis,  phalanx. 

GENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

99.  Nouns  in  the  third  declension  ending  in 

6,  or,  os,  er,  and  in  es  and  es  increasing  in  the  Genitive,^ 

are  masculine : sermo,  discourse ; dolor,  pain ; mos,  custom ; 
agger,  mound  ; pes.  Genitive  pedis,  foot. 

100.  Nouns  in  O are  masculine,  except  the  Feminines,  viz.  : 

1.  Nouns  in  6,  Gen.  inis,  except  cardb,  or  do,  turbo,  masc.,  cupidb  and 

margb,  masc.  or  fern. 

2.  Carb,  flesh,  and  the  Greek  ArgO,  echo,  echo. 

3.  Most  abstract  and  collective  nouns  in  id : ratib,  reason ; contib,  an 

assembly. 

101.  Nouns  in  OR  are  masculine,  except — 

1.  The  Feminine: — arbor,  tree. 

2.  The  Neuters : — ador,  spelt ; aequor,  sea ; cor,  heart ; marmor,  marble. 

1 02.  Nouns  in  OS  are  masculine,  except — 

1.  The  Feminines : — arSds,  tree  ; cos,  whetstone  ; c?ds,  dowry  ; eds,  dawn. 

2.  The  Neuter : — Os,  mouth. 

Note.— (9s,  bone,  and  a few  Greek  words  in  os  are  neuter:  chaos,  chaos. 

103.  Nouns  in  ER  are  masculine,  except — 


That  is,  having  more  syllables  in  the  Genitive  than  in  the  Nominative. 


GENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION 


47 


1.  The  Feminine: — linter^  boat  (sometimes  masc.). 

2.  The  Neuters: — (1)  cadaver^  corpse;  iter^  way;  tuber ^ tumor;  uber^ 

udder ; ver^  spring  ; verber^  scourge ; — (2)  botanical  names  in  er, 
Gen.  eris : acei\  maple-tree  ; papaver^  poppy« 

104.  Nouns  in  ES  and  ES  increasing  in  the  Genitive  are  masculine, 

except — 

1.  The  Feminines: — compes^  fetter;  merces^  reward;  merges^  sheaf; 

quils^  rest  (with  its  compounds) ; seges^  crop  ; teges^  mat ; some- 
times ales^  bird,  and  quadrupes^  quadruped. 

2.  The  Neuter : — aes,  copper. 

105.  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  ending  in 

as,  as,  is,  ys,  x,  in  es  not  increasing  in  the  Genitive,  and 
in  s preceded  ly  a consonant, 

are  feminine : ^ aetds,  age  ; navis,  ship  ; chlamys,  cloak : 
pax,  peace ; nubes,  cloud ; urbs,  city. 

1 06.  Nouns  in  AS  and  AS  are  feminine,  except — 

1.  llie  Masculines: — as,  an  as  (a  coin),  ^;as,  surety,  and  Greek  nouns  in 

as,  Gen.  antis. 

2.  The  Neuters  : — vas^  vessel,  and  Greek  nouns  in  as,  Gen.  atis. 

107.  Nouns  in  IS  and  YS  are  feminine,  except  the  Masculines.,  viz. : 

1.  Nouns  in  alis,  ollis,  cis,  mis,  nis,  guis,  quis:  natalis.,  birthday; 

ignis.,  fire ; sanguis.,  blood.  But  a few  of  these  are  occasionally 
feminine : canis.,  amnis.,  cinis.,  finis.,  anguis.,  torquis. 

2.  Axis,  axle  ; bitoHs,  plough-tail  ; callis,  path  ; ^ ensis,  sword ; lapis, 

stone ; mensis,  month  ; orbis,  circle ; postis,  post ; pulvis,  dust ; 
sentis,  brier ; torris,  brand ; vectis,  lever  ; and  a few  others. 

3.  Names  of  mountains  in  ys  : Othrys. 

108.  Nouns  in  X are  feminine,  except  the  Masculines,  viz.: 

1.  Greek  masculines : corax,  raven;  thorax,  cuirass. 

2.  Nouns  in  ex  and  unx ; except  the  feminines : faex,  forfex,  nex,  ( prex\ 

supellex. 

3.  Calix,  cup ; fornix,  arch ; phoenix,  phoenix ; tradux,  vine-layer,  and 
a few  nouns  in  yx. 

4.  Sometimes : calx,  heel ; calx,  lime  ; lynx,  lynx. 

109.  Nouns  in  ES  not  increasing  in  the  Genitive  are  feminine,  except 
the  Masculines,  viz. : 

1 Nouns  whose  gender  is  determined  by  Signification  (42)  may  be  exceptions  to 
these  rules  for  gender  as  determined  by  Endings.  Callis  is  sometimes  feminine. 


48 


FOURTH  HECLEN8I0H. 


Acinaces^  cimeter ; sometimes  palumbes^  dove ; and  vepres^  thorn-bush. 
Note. — For  Greek  nouns  in  see  111,  note. 

110.  Nouns  in  S preceded  by  a Consonant  are  feminine,  except  the 
Masculines^  viz. : 

1.  Dens^  tooth ; fom^  fountain ; mons^  mountain  ; pons^  bridge  ; gener- 

ally adeps^  fat,  and  rudens^  cable. 

2.  Some  nouns  in  ns,  originally  adjectives  or  participles  with  a mascu- 

, ' line  noun  understood  : oriens  (sol),  east ; confluens  (amnis),  con- 
fluence; (raster),  trident ; quadrans  (as),  quarter. 

3.  Chalybs^  steel ; hydrops^  dropsy,  and  a few  other  Greek  words. 

4.  Sometimes : forceps^  forceps  ; serpens,  serpent ; stirps,  stock.  Ani- 

mans, animal,  is  masculine,  feminine,  or  neuter. 

111.  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  ending  in 

a,  e,  i,  y,  1,  n,  t,  ar,  ar,  ur,  us,  and  us 

are  neuter : ^ pomna,  poem ; mare,  sea ; Idc,  milk ; animal, 
animal ; carmen,  song ; caput,  head  ; corpus,  body. 

Note. — A few  Greek  nouns  in  es  are  also  neuter : cacoWies,  desire,  passion. 

112.  Nouns  in  L,  AR,  and  AR  are  neuter,  except  the  Masculines,  viz. ; 
Mugil,  mullet ; sal^  salt ; sol,  sun ; lar,  hearth ; scdar,  trout. 

113.  Nouns  in  N are  neuter,  except — 

1.  The  Masculines : — pecten,  comb  ; ren,  kidney  ; lien,  spleen  ; and 

Greek  masculines  in  an,  en,  in,  on  : paean,  paean ; canon,  rule. 

2.  The  Feminines : — aedon,  nightingale  ; alcyon  {halcyon),  kingfisher  ; 

Icon,  image ; sindon,  muslin. 

114.  Nouns  in  UR  are  neuter,  except  the  Masculines,  viz. : 

Furfur,  bran ; turtur,  turtle-dove  ; vultur,  vulture. 

115.  Nouns  in  US  and  US  are  neuter,  except — 

1.  The  Masculines  \— lepus,  hare ; mus,  mouse ; and  Greek  nouns  in  pus. 

2.  The  Feminines : — tellus,  earth ; fraus,  fraud ; laus,  praise ; and  nouns 

in  us,  Gen.  utis  or  udis : virtus,  virtue ; palus,  marsh. 

FOURTH  DECLENSION:  U NOUNS. 

116.  Nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  end  in 

us — masculine;  u — neuter. 

They  are  declined  as  follows  : 


1 See  foot-note,  page  47.  Sal  is  sometimes  neuter  in  the  singular. 


FOURTH  DECLEN8I0K 


49 


Fructus,  fruit.  Cornu,  horn. 


Nbm. 

fructus 

SINGULAR. 

cornu 

Case-Endings. 

us 

u 

Gen. 

fructu-s 

cornus 

iis 

us 

Bat. 

fructiil,  ik  ^ 

cornu 

ul,  u ^ 

u 

Acc. 

fructum 

cornu 

um 

u 

Voc. 

fructus 

cornu 

us 

u 

Abl. 

fructu 

cornu 

u 

ti 

JSfom. 

fructus 

PLURAL. 

cornua 

us 

ua 

Gen. 

fructuum 

cornuum 

uum 

uum 

Bat. 

fructil>us 

cornil>us 

ibus  (ubus) 

ibus  (ubus) 

Acc. 

fructus 

cornua 

us 

ua 

Voc. 

fructus 

cornua 

us 

ua 

Abl. 

fructil>us 

corniljus 

ibus  (ubus) 

ibus  (ubus) 

1.  The  Stem  in  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  ends  in  u : fructu.^  cornu. 

2.  The  Case-Endings  here  contain  the  characteristic  u,  weakened 
to  i in  but  retained  in  uhu8  X see  22. 

117.  The  following  Irregular  Case-Endings  occur  : ^ 

1.  Ubus  for  ihu8  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural — 

1)  Regularly  in  «cws,  needle ; arcus.,  bow ; and  trihus^  tribe. 

2)  Often  in  artus.,^  joint;  lacus^  lake;  partus.,  birth;  portus.,  harbor; 

spccus.,  cave ; and  reru.,  spit.  \ 

3)  Occasionally  in  a few  other  words,  a^genu.,  knee  ; tonitrus.,  thunder,  etc. 

2.  Uis,  the  uncontracted  form  for  Us^  in  the  Genitive : fruciuis  for 

fructus.^  ' 

3.  Uos,  an  old  form  ® of  the  Genitive  ending : senatuos,^  of  the  senate. 

118.  Nouns  in  us  are  nqiasculine,  those  in  u are  neuter,  but  the  fol- 
lowing in  us  are — j 


1 Thus  ul  is  contracted  into  u : fr~'ctu^^  fr^/ciu. 

To  these  should  be  added  the  rare  endings  rd  for  in  the  Abl.  Sing.,  7ms  for  7ls  in 
the  Gen.  Sing.,  and  uUs  for  in  the  Norn.,  Acc.,  and  Voc.  PL  See  Wordsworth,  pp.  60-62. 

3 Generally  plural,  limbs. 

* It  has  been  already  mentioned  (47,  note  1)  that  the  five  declensions  are  only  five 
varieties  of  one  general  system  of  inflection.  The  close  relationship  between  the  third 
declension  and  the  fourth  will  be  seen  by  comparing  the  declension  of fc^'ctus.,  a w-noun 
of  the  fourth,  with  that  of  grus  (66,  2),  a ?/-noun  of  the  third.  In  fact,  if  the  old  Geni- 
tive ending  uis  had  not  been  contracted  into  ?7s,  there  would  have  been  no  fourth  de- 
clension whatever.  All  it-nouns  would  have  belonged  to  the  third  declension. 

® Compare  the  Greek  Genitive  in  vo5  : ix9vo<;,  fsh. 

® This  was  first  weakened  to  sendtuis  (23),  and  then  contracted  to  senatus  (23,  2), 
the  classical  form.  ^ 

5 


50 


FIFTH  declension: 


Feminine  by  Exception: — (1)  acus^  needle;  colus^  distaff;  domus^  house; 

manus^  hand ; porticus^  portico ; tribus^  tribe  ;^2)  ; 

Quinquatrus^  of  Minerva;  generally  pmws,  store,  when  of 
this  declension  ; rarely  spems^  den  ; — (3)  see  43,  II. 

Note. — The  only  neuter  nouns  in  common  use  are  cornu^  ge/nii^  and  veru.^ 

119.  Second  and  Fourth  Declensions. — Some  nouns  are  partly  of 
the  fourth  declension  and  partly  of  the  second. 

1.  Domus ^ F.,  house,  has  a Locative  form  domi^  at  home,  and  is  other 
wise  declined  as  follows  : ^ 


SINGULAR. 

Nom.  domus 
Gen.  domus 
Dat.  domui  (domo) 
Acc.  domum 
Voc.  domus 
Ahl.  domo  (domti) 


PLURAL. 

domus 

domuum,  domorum 

domibus 

domos,  domus 

domus 

domibus 


2.  Certain  names  of  trees  in  us.,  as  cupressus., ficus.,  laurus.,  pinus ^ though 
generally  of  Decl.  II.,  sometimes  take  those  cases  of  the  fourth  which  end  in 
us.,  us.,  and  u : N.  laurus.,  G.  laurus.,  D.  laurd.,  A.  laurum.,  V.  laurus.,  A.  lauru., 
etc.  So  also  colus.,  distaff*. 

3.  A few  nouns,  especially  senatus.,  senate,  and  tumultus.,  tumult,  though 
regularly  of  Decl.  IV.,  sometimes  take  the  Genitive  ending  i of  the  second  ; 
sendti.,  tumulti. 

4.  Quercus.,  oak,  regularly  of  Decl.  IV.,  has  quercorum  in  the  Gen.  Plur. 


FIFTH  DECLENSION:  E NOUNS. 

120.  Nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  end  in  es— feminine^ 
and  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Dies,  day.  Kes,  thing. 


SINGULAR. 

Case-Endings. 

Nom. 

dies 

res 

es 

Gen. 

diei  or  die 

rei  or  re 

el,  e 

Dat. 

diei  or  die 

rei  or  re 

el,  e 

Acc. 

diem 

rem 

em 

Voc. 

dies 

res 

es 

Ahl. 

die 

re 

e 

1 But  neuter  forms  occur  in  certain  cases  of  other  words.  Thus,  Dat.  pecui.,  Abl 
pecu.  Nom,,  Acc.,  and  Voc.  PI.  pecua.,  from  obsolete  pecii.,  cattle;  also  artua  from 
artus ; ossua  from  obsolete  ossu.,  bone ; specua  from  specus. 

2 Combining  forms  of  the  second  declension  with  those  of  the  fourth. 


FIFTH 

DECLENSION 

PLURAL. 

Case-Endings, 

Nom. 

dies 

res 

es 

Gen. 

dierum 

rerum 

erum 

Dat. 

dielms 

rebus 

ebus 

Acc. 

dies 

res 

es 

Voc. 

dies 

res 

es 

Ahl. 

diebus 

rebus 

ebus 

1.  The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  ends  in  e : 7'eJ 

2.  The  Case-Endings  here  given  contain  the  characteristic  e,  which  ap- 
pears in  all  the  cases.  It  is  shortened  (1)  generally  in  the  ending  ll,  when 
preceded  by  a consonant,  and  (2)  regularly  in  the  ending  em. 

Note. — Traces  of  a Locative  in  e are  preserved  in  certain  phrases  found  in  early 
Latin,  as  die  septimi^  on  the  seventh  day;  die  crastini^  on  the  morrow ; die  proximi^ 
on  the  next  day.  Cotidie^  hodie^ pridie^  and  the  like  are  doubtless  Locatives  in  origin. 

121.  Irregular  Case-Endings. — The  following  occur : 

1.  I or  ei  for  M in  the  Gen.  and  Dat. : acii  for  aciei^  of  sharpness; 
dia  for  diei ; m for  rel ; pernicil  for  perniciei^  of  destruction. 

2.  £3s  in  the  Gen.  in  early  Latin : dies^  of  a day ; rahies^  of  madness. 

123.  Defective. — Nouns  of  this  declension  want  the  plural,  except  ^ — 

Dies  and  m,  complete  in  all  their  parts. 

— 2.  Acies^  sharpness ; effigies^  image ; facies^  face ; series^  series ; species^  ap- 
pearance ; spes^  hope,  used  in  the  Sing.,  and  in  the  Nom.,  Acc.,  and  Voc.  Plur. 

3.  Etuvies^  in  the  Sing,  and  in  the  Nom.  Plur.,  and  glades  in  the 
Sing,  and  in  the  Acc.  Plur. 

>.123.  Gender. — Nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  are  feminine — 

Except  dies^  day,  and  meridies^  midday,  masculine^  dies  is  some 

times.^mlDLine.in  singular,  especially  when  it  means  time. 

124.  General  Table  of  Gender. 

I.  Gender  independent  of  ending. Common  to  all  de- 
clensions. 


1 Originally  most  ^-sterns  appear  to  have  been  either  a-stemg  or  5-stems.  Thus:  1)  . 
iMost  stems  in  ie  are  modified  from  id:  materia.^  mdteri'^^  Nom.  mdterie-s^  material; 
see  25,  1,  note,  with  foot-note  6.  In  this  class  of  words  the  Gen.  and  Dat.  Sing  are 
formed  from  the  stem  in  iA  not  from  that  in  ies:  materiae^  not  m~teriel.  2)  Di's^ 

Jides^  plehes.,  and  spes  appear  to  have  been  «-stems,  modified  to  c-stems,  as  many 
s-stems  in  the  third  declension  were  modified  to  i-stems;  see  62,  I.,  1.  foot-note. 

2 A few  plural  forms  in  addition  to  those  here  given  are  sometimes  cited,  but  seem 

not  to  occur  in  writers  of  the  classical  period.  ^ 

3 In  early  Latin  speres  occurs  in  the  Nom.  and  Acc.  Plur.,  formed  from  spes  treated 

M a stem  in  s.  Thus : spes.  speses,  speres  (31,  1).  ^ ^ 

* For  exceptions,  see  43. 


52 


COMPOUND  NOUNS. 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

1 Neuter. 

Names  of  Males,  of 

Names  of  Females,  of 

Indeclinable  Nouns,^  In. 

Rivers,  Winds,  and 

Countries,  Tow^ns,  Isl- 

FINITI VES,  and  Clauses 

Months. 

ANDS,  and  Trees. 

used  as  Nouns. 

II.  Gender  determined  by  Nominative  ending.^ 

Declension  I. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

as,  es. 

a,  e. 

Declension  II. 

er,  ir,  us,  os,  6s. 

1 

Declension  III. 

1 um,  on. 

6,  or,  5s,  er,  es  and 

as,  as,  is,  ys,  x,  es  and 

a,  e,  i,  y,  c,  1,  n,  t,  ar. 

es  increasing  in  the 

es  not  increasing  in  the 

ar,  ur,  us,  us. 

Genitive. 

Genitive.^  s preceded  by 
a consonant. 

Declension  IY. 

us.  1 

1 1 
Declension  Y. 

1 u. 

1 

1 es.  1 

1 

COMPOUND  NOUNS. 

125.  Compounds  present  in  general  no  peculiarities  of  declension. 

But — 

1.  If  two  nominatives  unite,  they  are  both  declined : 3 respublica  = res  pub-- 
lica^  republic,  the  public  thing;  jusjurandum  — jus  jurandum.^  oath. 

2.  If  a nominative  unites  with  an  oblique  case,  only  the  nominative  is 
declined : ^ paterfamilias  = pater  familias  (49, 1),  or  pater  familiae^  the  father 

of  a family. 

126.  Paradigms. 

singular. 

respublica 

jusjurandum 

paterfamilias 

Gen.  reipuhlicae  jiirisjurandi 

patrisfamilias 

Dat.  rCipublicae  jurljurando 

patrifamilias 

Acc.  rempublicam  jusjurandum 

patremfamilias 

Voc.  respublica 

jusjurandum 

paterfamilias 

Abl.  republica 

jurejurando 

patrefamilias 

^ Except  names  of  persons. 

2 For  exceptions,  see  under  the  several  declensions. 

® Words  thus  formed,  however,  are  not  compounds  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term 
see  340, 1.,  note. 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS, 


53 


PLURAL. 

Nom.  respublicae  iurajuranda 

Gen,  rerumpublicarum 

Dat.  rebuspublicis 

Acc.  respublicas  jurajuranda 

Voc.  respublicae  iurajuranda 

Ahl.  rebuspublicis 


patre  sfamili  as 

patrumfamilias 

patribusfamilias 

patresfamilias 

patresfamilias 

patribusfamilias 


Note  1. — The  parts  which  compose  these  and  similar  words  are  often  and  perhaps 
more  correctly  written  separately  : respuMica;  paterfamilias  ov  familiae. 

Note  1,— Paterfamilias  sometimes  has  familiarum  in  the  plural : patresfamili- 
2rum. 

IKREGULAR  NOUNS. 


1 27.  Irregular  nouns  may  be  divided  into  four  classes : 

I.  Indeclinable  Nouns  have  but  one  form  for  all  cases. 

II.  Defective  Nouns  want  certain  parts. 

III.  Heteroclites  are  partly  of  one  declension  and  partly 

of  another. 

IV.  Heterogeneous  Nouns  {heterogenea'^)  are  partly  of  one  gender  and 
partly  cf  another, 

I.  Indeclinable  Nouns. 


1 28.  The  Latin  has  but  few  indeclinable  nouns.  The  following  are 
the  most  important : 

1.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  alpha.,  beta.,  etc. 

2.  Foreign  words : Jacob.,  Iliberl ; though  foreign  words  often  are  declined. 

II.  Defective  Nouns. 

129.  Nouns  may  be  defective  in  Number.,  in  Case,  or  in  both  Number 
and  Ca,^c. 


130.  Plural  wanting. — Many  nouns  from  the  nature  of  their  signi- 
fication want  the  plural : Roma,  Rome ; justitia,  justice ; aurum,  gold ; fa- 
mes, hunger ; sanguis,  blood. 

1.  The  principal  nouns  of  this  class  are : 

1)  Most  names  of  persons  and  places  : CicerO,  Roma. 

2)  Abstract  Nouns : fides,  faith  ; justitia,  justice. 

3)  Names  of  materials  : amnim,  gold  ; ferrum,  iron. 

4)  A few  others  : meridies,  midday ; specimen,  example ; supellex,  furni- 
ture ; 'O'er,  spring ; vespera,  evening,  etc. 

2.  Proper  names  admit  the  plural  to  designate  families,  classes  ; names  of 
materials,  to  designate  pieces  of  the  material  or  articles  made  of  it ; and  ab- 
stract nouns,  to  designate  instances,  or  kinds,  of  the  quality : Scipiones,  the 
Scipi&s ; aera,  vessels  of  copper ; avaritiae,  instances  of  avarice ; odia,  hatreds. 

3.  In  the  poets,  plural  of  abstracts  occurs  in  the  sense  of  the  singular. 


1 From  erepo?,  another,  and  xAiVt?,  inflection,  i.  o.,  of  difforen^  declensions. 

2 From  erepos,  another,  and  yeVos,  gender,  i.  e.,  of  different  genders. 


54 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


131.  Singular  wanting. — Many  nouns  want  the  singular. 

1.  The  most  important  of  these  are : 

1)  Certain  personal  appellatives  applicable  to  classes : majores^  forefathers; 

posteri^  descendants;  gemini^  twins;  children. 

2)  Many  names  of  cities:  Ath^enae^  Athens;  Thebae^  Thebes;  Delphi^ 
Delphi. 

8)  Many  names  of  festivals  : Bacchanalia^  Olympia^  Saturnalia. 

4)  Arma.^  arms ; divitiae.,  riches  ; exsequiae.,  funeral  rites ; exuviae.,  spoils ; 
Jdus.,  lies ; indutiae^  truce  ; Insidiae.,  ambuscade  ; manes.,  shades  of  the  dead  ; 
mlnae.,  threats ; moenia.,  walls ; munia.,  duties ; nuptiae.,  nuptials ; rlliquiae^ 
remains. 

2.  An  individual  member  of  a class  designated  by  these  plurals  may  be  de- 
noted by  unus  ex  with  the  plural:  unus  ex  llherls.,  one  of  the  children,  or  a child. 

Note. — The  plural  in  names  of  cities  may  have  reference  to  the  several  parts  of  the 
city,  especially  as  ancient  cities  were  often  made  up  of  separate  villages.  So  in  the  names 
of  festivals,  the  plural  may  refer  to  the  various  games  and  exercises  which  together  con- 
stituted the  festival. 


132.  Plural  with  Change  of  Meaning. — Some  nouns  have  one  sig- 
nification in  the  singular  and  another  in  the  plural.  Thus : 


SINGULAR. 

Aedes,  temple  ; 

Auxilium,  help  ; 

Career,  prison.,  harrier  ; 

Castrum,  castle.,  hut ; 

Comitium,  name  of  a part  of  the 
Roman  forum  ; 

Copia,  plenty.,  force  ; 

Facultas,  ability  ; 

Finis,  end  ; 

Fortuna,  fortune  ; 

Gratia,  gratitude^  favor  ; 

Hortus,  garden  / 

Impedimentum,  hindrance  ; 
Littera,  letter  of  alphabet ; 

Ludus,  sport ; 

Mos,  custom  ; 

Natalis  (dies),  birth-day  ; 

Opera,  work.,  service  ; 

Pars,  part ; 

Kostrum,  beak  of  ship  / 

Sal,  salt ; 


PLURAL. 

aedes,  (1)  temples.  (2)  a house.^ 
auxilia,  auxiliaries. 
carcerts,  barriers  of  a race-course. 
castra,  camp. 

comitia,  the  assembly  held  in  the  comitium, 

copiae,  (1)  stores.,  (2)  troops. 
facultates,  wealth.,  means. 
fines,  borders.,  territory. 
fortunae,  possessions.,  wealth, 
gratiae,  thanks. 

horti,  if)  gardens^  if)  pleasure-grounds. 
impedimenta,  (1)  hindrances,  (2)  baggage. 
litterae,  (1)  letters  of  alphabet,  (2)  epistle., 
writing,  letters,  literature. 
ludi,  {\)  plays,  (2)  public  spectacle. 
mores,  mannei'S,  character. 
natales,  pedigree,  parentage. 
operae,  workmen. 
partes,  {X)  parts,  fX)  a party. 
rostra,  (1)  beaks,  (2)  the  rostra  or  tribune 
in  Rome  (adorned  with  beaks), 
sales,  witty  sayings. 


^ Aedes  and  some  other  words  in  this  list,  it  will  be  observed,  have  in  the  plural  two 
significations,  one  corresponding  to  that  of  the  singular,  and  the  other  distinct  from  it. 


HETERO  CUTES. 


55 


133.  Defective  in  Case. — Some  nouns  are  defective  in  case : 

1.  In  the  Nom.,  Dat.,  and  Voc.  Sing. : , o]pis^ , opem^ ope^ 

help ; , vicis p , vicem, , vic^  change. 

2.  In  the  Nom.,  Gen.,  and  V oc.  Sing. : , preci,  precem , , prece,  prayer. 

3.  In  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing. : , dapis,'^  dapl,  dapem,  , dape, 

food ; , frugis,  frugi,  frugem, , fruge,  fruit. 

4.  In  the  Gen.,  Dat.,  and  Ahl.  Plur. : Most  nouns  of  the  fifth  Decl. ; see  133. 

Note. — Many  neuters  are  also  defective  in  the  Gen.,  Dat.,  and  Abl.  Plur. : fa/r^  fel^ 

mel^  pus,  rus,  tus,  etc.,  especially  Greek  neuters  in  os,  which  want  these  cases  also  in 
the  singular  : epos,  melos ; also  a few  noims  of  Decl.  IV. : metus,  situs,  etc. 

5.  In  the  Gen.  Plur. : many  nouns  otherwise  entire,  especially  monosylla' 
hies : nex,  pax,  pix  ; cor,  cos,  ros  ; sal,  sol,  lux. 

134.  Number  and  Case. — Some  nouns  want  one  entire  number  and 
certain  cases  of  the  other.  The  following  forms  occur:  fors,  forte, 
chance ; lues,  luem,  lue,  pestilence  ; dicionis,  dicioni,  dicionem,  dicione,  sway. 
Fas,  right,  and  nefds,  wrong,  are  used  in  the  Nom.,  Acc.,  and  Voc.  Sing. ; 
Instar,  likeness,  nihil,  nothing,  and  opus,  need,  in  the  Nom.  and  Acc. ; 
secus,  sex,  in  the  Acc.  only.  Many  verbal  nouns  in  u and  a few  other 
words  have  only  the  Ablative  Singular : jussu,  by  order ; mandatu,  by  com- 
mand ; rogatu,  by  request ; sponte,  by  choice,  etc. 

III.  Heteroclites. 

135.  Of  Declensions  II.  and  IV.  are  a few  nouns  in  us  ; see  119. 

1 36.  Of  Declensions  II.  and  III.  are — 

1.  Jugerum,  an  acre;  generally  of  the  second  Decl.  in  the  Sing.,  and  of 

the  third  in  the  Plur. : jugerum,  jitgerl ; jugera,  jugerum,  jugeribus. 

2.  Vas,  a vessel;  of  the  third  Decl.  in  the  Sing,  and  of  the  second  in  the 
Plur.  : vds,  vdsis  ; plural,  vdsa,  vasorum. 

3.  Plural  names  of  festivals  in  alia:  Bacchanalia,  Saturnalia;  which  are 
regularly  of  the  third  Deck,  but  sometimes  form  the  Gen.  Plur.  in  drum  of 
the  second.  Ancile,  a shield,  and  a few  other  words  have  the  same  peculiarity. 

1 37.  Of  Declensions  III.  and  V.  are — 

1.  Requies,  rest;  W’hich  is  regularly  of  the  third  Deck,  but  also  takes  the 
forms  requiem  and  requie  of  the  fifth. 

2.  Fames,  hunger;  regularly  of  the  third  Deck,  except  in  the  Ablative, 
fame,  of  the  fifth  (not  fame,  of  the  third). 

138.  Forms  in  ia  and  ies. — Many  words  of  four  syllables  have  one 
form  in  ia  of  Deck  I.,  and  one  in  ies  of  Deck  V. : luxuria,  luxuries,  lux- 
ury ; materia,  materies,  material. 

139.  Forms  in  us  and  um. — Many  nouns  derived  from  verbs  have  one 
form  in  us  of  Deck  IV.,  and  one  in  um  of  Deck  II. : conatus,  conatum, 
attempt ; eventus,  eventum,  event. 


^ Defective  also  in  the  Gen.  Plur. 


56 


ADJECTIVES, 


140.  Many  words  which  have  but  one  approved  form  in  prose,  admit 
another  in  poetry ; juventus  (utis),  youth ; poetic,  juventa  (ae) : senectus 
(utis),  old  age ; poetic,  senecta  (ae) : paupertas  (atis),  poverty ; poetic, 
pauperies  (eT). 

TV.  Heterogeneous  Nouns. 

141.  Masculine  and  Neuter. — Some  masculines  take  in  the  plural  an 
additional  form  of  the  neuter  gender : 

Jocus^  m.,  jest ; plural, yoci,  m.,y<?m,  n. 

Locus.,  m.,  place ; plural,  loci.,  m.,  topics,  loca.,  n.^  places. 

142.  Feminine  and  Neuter. — Some  feminines  take  in  the  plural  an 
additional  form  of  the  neuter  gender : 

Carhasus.,  f. , linen ; plural,  carhasl.,  f. , carhasa.,  n. 

Margarita.,  f.,  pearl ; plural,  margaritae.,  f.,  margarita.,  n. 

Ostrea.,  t.,  ostreae.,  i..,  ostrea.,  n. 

143.  Neuter  and  Masculine  or  Feminine. — Some  neuters  take  in  the 
plural  a different  gender.  Thus  : 

1.  Some  neuters  become  masculine  in  the  plural : 

Caelum.,  n.,  heaven;  plural,  cadi.,  m. 

2.  Some  neuters  generally  become  masculine  in  the  plural,  but  sometimes 
remain  neuter : 

Frenum.,  n.,  bridle  ; plural,  frenl.,  m.,  frena.,  n. 

Rastrum.,  n.,  rake ; plural,  rastrl^  m.,  rastra.,  n. 

3.  Some  neuters  become  feminine  in  the  plural : 

Epulum.,  n.,  feast;  plural,  epulae.,  f. 

144.  Forms  in  us  and  um. — Some  nouns  of  the  second  declension 
have  one  form  in  us  masculine,  and  one  in  um  neuter : clipeus.,  clipeum^ 
shield ; commentarius,  commentarium,  commentary. 

1 45.  Heterogeneous  Heteroclites. — Some  heteroclites  are  also  hete- 
rogeneous : conatus  (us),  conatum  (i),  effort ; menda  (ae),  mendum  (I),  fault. 


CHAPTEK  II. 

ADJECTIVES. 

146.  The  adjective  is  the  part  of  speech  which  is  used 
to  qualify  nouns  : ionus,  good  ; mdgnus,  great. 

Note. — The  form  of  the  adjective  in  Latin  depends  in  part  upon  the  gender  of  the 
noun  which  it  qualifies:  bonus puer.,  a good  boy;  bo7ia puella.,  a good  girl;  bonum  temr 
plum.,  a good  temple.  Thus,  in  the  Nom.  Sing.,  bonus  is  the  form  of  the  adjective  when 
used  with  masculine  nouns,  bona  with  feminine,  and  bonum  with  neuter. 


CARL  HINRICHS 

ADJECTIVES,  67 


147.  Some  adjectives  are  partly  of  the  first  declension 
and  partly  of  the  second,  while  all  the  rest  are  entirely  of 
the  third  declension. 


First  and  Second  Declensions  : A and  O Stems. 


148. 

Bonus,  good.^ 
Masc. 

singular. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

iNom. 

bonus 

bona 

bonum 

boni 

bonae 

boni 

^ Dat. 

bono 

bonae 

bono 

<\Acc. 

njoc. 

boniim 

bonam 

bonum 

bone 

bona 

bonum 

Abl. 

bono 

bona 

bono 

^ Nom. 

bonI 

plural. 

bonae 

bona 

'i^Gen. 

bonoruiMi 

bonarum 

bonorum 

S Dat. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

bonos 

bonas 

bona 

V Voc. 

boni 

bonae 

bona 

S^Abl. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

149.  free.’^ 

Masc. 

Horn,  liber 

singular. 
Fem. 
libera ' 

Neut. 

liberum 

Gen. 

llberi 

liberae 

llberi 

Dat. 

llbero 

liberae 

llbero 

Acc. 

llberiuM, 

liberam 

liberum 

Voc. 

liber 

libera 

liberum 

Abl. 

llbero 

libera 

llbero 

Nom. 

llberl 

PLURAL. 

liberae 

libera 

Gen. 

llberonini 

liberarum 

liberorum 

Dat. 

llberls 

liberis 

liberis 

Acc. 

liberos 

liberas 

libera 

Voc. 

llberl 

liberae 

libera 

Abl. 

llberls 

liberis 

liberis 

1 Bonus  is  declined  in  the  Masc.  Xx^esermis  of  Decl.  IT.  (51),  in  the  Fern,  like  mensa 
of  Decl.  I.  (48),  and  in  the  Neut.  like  templum  of  Decl.  II.  (51).  The  stems  are  hono 
in  the  Masc.  and  Neut.,  and  bond  in  the  Fern. 

2 LIber  is  declined  in  the  Masc.  like  puer  (51),  and  in  the  Fern,  and  Neut.  like  bonus. 


58 


• 

ABJECTIVE8. 

150. 

Aeger,  sicTc.^ 

SINGULAR. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Nom, 

aeger 

aegra 

Gen. 

aegri 

aegrae 

Bat. 

aegro 

aegrae 

Acc. 

aegrum 

aegram 

Voc. 

aeger 

aegra 

AM. 

aegro 

aegra 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

aegri 

aegrae 

Gen. 

aegrorum 

aegrarum 

Bat. 

aegris 

aegris 

Acc. 

aegros 

aegras 

Voc. 

aegri 

aegrae 

Ahl. 

aegris 

aegris 

aegrum 

aegri 

aegro 

aegrum 

aegrum 

aegro 

aegra 

aegrorum 

aegris 

aegra 

aegra 

aegris 


Note. — Most  adjectives  in  er  are  declined  like  aeger ^ but  the  following  in 
er  and  ur  are  declined  like  llher  : 

1)  Asper ^ rough ; lacer,  torn  ; miser,  wretched ; prosper,  prosperous  ; tener, 
tender ; but  asper  sometimes  drops  the  e,  and  dexter,  right,  sometimes  retains 
it : dexter,  dextera,  or  dextra. 

2)  Satur,  sated ; satur,  satura,  saturum. 

3)  Compounds  in  fer  and  ger : mortifer,  deadly  ; dliger,  winged. 


151.  Ieregulakities. — Nine  adjectives  have  in  the 
singular  ius  ^ in  the  Genitive  and  i in  the  Dative,  and  are 
declined  as  follows  : 


Alius, 

another. 

SINGULAR. 

Solus, 

alone. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom.  alius  3 

alia 

aliud  3 

solus 

sola 

solum 

Gen.  alius 

alius 

alius  4 

solius 

solius 

solius 

Bat.  alii 

alii 

alii 

soli 

soli 

soli 

Acc.  alium 

aliam 

aliud 

solum 

solam 

solum 

Voc. 

sole 

sola 

solum 

Abi.  alio 

alia 

alio 

solo 

sola 

solo 

1 Aeger  is  declined  in  the  masculine  like  ager  (51),  and  in  the  feminine  and  neuter  ' 

like  bonus. 

/in  lus  is  often  shortened  by  the  poets;  regularly  so  in  in  dactylic  verse  j 

(609). 

3 Rarely  alis  and  alid.  The  same  stem  appears  in  ali-quis  (190,  2),  some  one;  1 

ali-ter.  otherwise.  ! 

4 For  ali'ius  by  contraction.  Alterius  often  supplies  the  place  of  alius  j 


ADJECTIVES, 


59 


PLURAL. 


Nom,  alii 

aliae 

alia 

sOli 

solae 

sola 

Gen.  aliorum 

aliarum 

• aliorum 

. solorum 

solarum 

solorum 

Dat.  aliis 

aliis 

aliis 

solis 

solis 

solis 

Acc.  alios 

alias 

alia 

solos 

solas 

sola 

Voc. 

soli 

solae 

sola 

Abl.  aliis 

aliis 

aliis 

solis 

solis 

solis 

1 . These  nine  adjectives  are  : alius^  ud^  another ; nullus^  um,^  no  one ; 
solus,^  alone ; tbtus,^  whole  ; ullus,^  any ; unus,}  one ; alter ^ -tera^  -terum^  the 
other  3 ; uter,,  -tra^  which  (of  two)  ; neuter ^ -tra^  -trum,!^  neither. 

Note  1. — The  regular  forms  occasionally  occur  in  the  Gen.  and  Dat.  of  some  of  these 
adjectives. 

NoiB  2.— Like  uter  are  declined  its  compounds ; uterqne,  ntervis^  ute/rlibet^  uter- 
cunque.  In  alteruter  sometimes  both  parts  are  declined,  as  alterius  utrlus;  and 
sometimes  only  the  latter,  as  alterutrius. 

Third  Declension  : Consonant  and  I Stems. 


152.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes  : 

I.  Those  which  have  in  the  Nominative  Singular  three 
different  forms — one  for  each  gender. 

II.  Those  which  have  two  forms — the  masculine  and 
feminine  being  the  same. 

III.  Those  which  have  but  one  form — the  same  for  all 
genders. 

153.  Adjectives  of  Three  Endings  in  this  declension 
have  the  stem  in  and  are  declined  as  follows  : 


^ ^Acer,  sharp. ^ 
; * V»  j \ 
w:  --  ^ Masc. 

SINGULAR. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

' \^Nom. 

acer  ® 

acris 

acre 

{ ^ ^Gen. 

acris 

acris 

acris 

\/  pDat. 

acri 

acri 

acri 

\ )Acc. 

acrem 

acrem 

acre 

yvoc. 

acer 

acris 

acre 

KAhl. 

acri 

acri 

acri 

1 See  declension,  175. 

I 2 Qen.  alterius.,  Dat.  alterl  ; otherwise  declined  like  Uber  (149). 

3 Or  QJIQ  Qf 

^ Gen.  utrlus.,  Dat.  utrl;  otherwise  like  aeger  (150).  Neuter  like  uter. 

[ ® Acer  is  declined  like  Ignis  in  the  Masc.  and  Fern.,  and  like  mare  (63)  in  the  Ncut., 

I'  except  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing.,  Masc.,  and  in  the  Abl.  Sing. 

i ® These  forms  in  er  are  like  those  in  er  of  Deck  II.  in  dropping  the  ending  in  the 

I Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  and  in  developing  final  r into  er:  deer  for  deris.,  stem,  deri. 


60 


ADJECTIVES. 


PLURAL. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neft. 

Nom.  acres 

acres 

acriu 

Gen.  acriiim 

acrium 

acrium 

Bat.  acril>ias 

acril>us 

acribus 

Acc.  acres,  is 

acres,  Is 

acriu 

Voc.  acres 

acres 

acria 

Ahl.  acril>MS 

acrilaus 

acribus 

ISTote  1. — Like  Acer  are  declined : 

1)  Alacer,  lively;  campester,  level;  celeber,  famous;  ceJer,^  swift;  equester,  eques 
trian;  paluster,  marshy;  pedester,  pedestrian;  puter,  putrid;  saM&er,  healthful;  sib 
vester,  woody ; terrester,  terrestrial ; volucer,  winged. 

2)  Adjectives  in  er  designating  the  months  : October,  bris.'^ 

Note  2. — In  the  poets  and  in  early  Latin  the  form  in  er,  as  deer,  is  sometimes  femi- 
nine, and  the  form  in  is,  as  dcris,  is  sometimes  masculine. 

154.  Adjectives  of  Two  Endings  are  declined  as 
follows : 


Tristis,  sad.^ 

Tristior,  sadder."^ 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

SINGULAR. 

M. AND  F. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

tristis 

triste 

tristior 

tristius 

Gen. 

tristis 

tristis 

tristioris 

tristioris 

Bat. 

trlsti 

trlsti 

tristiori 

tristiori 

Acc. 

tristem 

triste 

tristiorem 

tristius 

Voc. 

tristis 

triste 

tristior 

tristius 

Ahl. 

trlsti 

trlsti 

tristiore  (i)  ^ 

tristiore  (i) 

Nom. 

tristes 

tristia 

PLURAL. 

tristiores 

tristiora 

Gen. 

tristium 

tristium 

tristiorum 

tristiorum 

Bat. 

tristibus 

tristibus 

tristioribus 

tristioribus 

Acc. 

tristes,  is 

tristia 

tristiores  (is) 

tristiora 

Voc. 

tristes 

tristia 

tristiores 

tristiora 

Ahl. 

tristibus 

tristibus 

tristioribus 

tristioribus 

Note  1. — Like  tristior,  comparatives,  as  consonant  stems,  generally  have  the  Abl. 
Sing,  in  e.  sometimes  in  i,  the  Nom.  Plur.  Neut.  in  a,  and  the  Gen.  Plur.  in  um.  But 
complures,  several,  has  Gen.  Plur.  complurium;  Nom.,  Acc.,  and  Voc.  Plur.  Neut. 
complura  or  compluria ; see  Plus,  165. 

Note  2. — In  poetry,  adjectives  in  is,  e,  sometimes  have  the  Ahl.  Sing,  in  e : cogno- 
mine from  cognominis,  of  the  same  name. 

1 This  retains  e in  declension  : celer,  celeris,  celere;  and  has  um  in  the  Gen.  Plur. 

2 See  also  7 7,  2,  note. 

3 Tristis  and  triste  are  declined  like  dcris  and  dcre;  the  stem  is  trlsti. 

^ Tristior  is  the  comparative  (160)  of  tristis;  the  stem  was  originally  tristios,  but 
it  has  been  modified  to  tristius  (61, 1)  and  tristior  (31). 

® Enclosed  endings  are  rare. 


ADJECTIVES. 


61 


155.  Adjectives  of  Oxe  Ending  generally  end  in  s or 
X,  but  sometimes  in  I or  r. 


156.  Audax,  (mdacious.^ 

SINGULAR. 

M.  AND  F.  ^ Neut. 

Felix,  Tiappy.^ 

M. AND  F. 

Neut. 

Aom.  audax 

audax 

felix 

felix 

Gen.  audacis 

audacis 

felicis 

felicis 

Dat.  audaci 

audaci 

felici 

felici 

Acc.  audacem 

audax 

felicem 

felix 

Voc.  audax 

audax 

felix 

felix 

Ahl.  audaci  (e) 

audaci  (e) 

felici  (e) 

felici  (e) 

Nom.  audaces 

PLURAL. 

audacia 

felices 

felicia 

Gen.  audaci iim 

audacisim 

felicium 

felicium 

Dat.  audacil>iis 

audacitms 

felicitous 

felicitous 

Acc.  audaces  (Is) 

audacia  • 

felices  (is) 

felicia 

Voc.  audaces 

audacia 

felices 

felicia 

Ahl.  audacil>us 

audacil>as 

felicitoiis.  / , 

felicitous 

■ ...  -- 

157.  Amans(  loving.  - 

Prudens,  prudent. 

M.  AND  F. 

SINGULAR. 

Neut.  .. 

M. AND  F. 

Neut. 

Nom.  amans 

amans 

prudens 

prudens 

Gen.  amantis 

amantis 

prudentis 

prudentis  ^ 

Dat.  amanti 

amanti 

prudenti 

prudenti 

Acc.  amantem 

amans 

prudentem 

prudens 

Voc.  amans 

afnans 

prudens 

prudens 

Ahl.  amante  (l) 

amante  (I) 

prudenti  (e) 

prudenti  (e) 

Nom.  amantes 

PLURAL. 

amantia 

prudentes 

prudentia 

Gen.  amantium 

amantium 

prudentium 

prudentium 

Dat.  amantil>iis 

amantil>as 

prudentitoiis 

prudentitous 

Acc.  amantes  (Is) 

amantia 

prudentes  (Is) 

prudentia 

Voc.  amantes 

amantia 

prudentes 

prudentia 

Ahl.  amantil>iis 

amantil>iis 

prudentitoiis 

prudentitous 

Note.— The  participle  amdns  differs  in  declension  from  the  adjective  prudens  only 
in  the  Abl.  Sing.,  where  the  participle  usually  has  the  ending  e,  and  the  adjective,  i. 

1 Observe  that  I in  the  Abl.  Sing.,  and  ia,  ium^  and  Is  in  the  Plur.,  are  the  regular 
case-endings  for  i-stems;  see  63  and  63. 

2 According  to  Ritschl,  Schmitz,  and  others,  the  e which  is  long  in  prudens  before  ns 
is  short  in  all  other  forms  of  the  word,  i.  e.,  before  nt.  In  the  same  manner  the  a which 
is  long  in  aradns^  is  according  to  Ritschl  short  in  amantis^  amanti^  etc. ; see  p.  37,  foot- 
note 2.  See  also  Schmitz,  pp.  8-26;  Ritschl,  Rhein.  Museum,  xxxi.,  p.  488 ; Miiller,  p.  27. 


62 


ADJECTIVES. 


Participles  used  adjectively  may  of  course  take  i.  A few  adjectives  have  only  e in  gen- 
eral use: — (1)  pauper^  paupere^  poor;  pubes^  pubere^  mature;— (2)  those  in  es,  Gr. 


itis  or  idis 

, : dles^  deses,  dives,  sospes,  superstes  ; 

(3)  caelebi,  compos,  impos,  princeps. 

158. 

Vetus,  old. 

A 

SINGULAR. 

Memor,  mindful. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

vetus 

vetus 

memor 

memor 

Gen. 

veteris 

veteris 

memoris 

memoris 

Bat. 

veteri 

veteri 

memori 

memori 

Acc. 

veterem 

vetus 

memorem 

memor 

Voc. 

vetus 

vetus 

memor 

memor 

Abl. 

vetere  (I) 

vetere  (i) 

PLURAL. 

memori 

memori 

Nom. 

veteres 

vetera 

memores 

Gen. 

veterum 

veterum 

memoram 

Bat. 

veteril>iis 

veteril>its 

memoril>as 

Acc. 

veteres  (is; 

vetera 

memores  (is) 

Voc. 

veteres 

vetera 

memores 

Abl. 

veteril>iis 

veteritoas 

memorilbas 

1.  Neuter  Plural.— Many  adjectives  like  memor^  from  the  nature  of 
their  signification,  want  the  Neuter  Plural;  all  others  have  the  ending  ia^ 
as  f dicta.,  prudentia^  except  uher.,  uhera.,  fertile,  and  vetus,  vetera, 

2.  Genitive  Plural. — Most  adjectives  have  ium,  but  the  following 
have  um : 

1)  Adjectives  of  one  ending  with  only  e in  the  Ablative  Singular  (157, 
note) : pauper,  pauperum. 

2)  Those  with  the  Genitive  in  eris,  oris,  uris : vetus,  veterum,  old ; 
memor,  memorum,  mindful ; cicur,  cicurum,  tame. 

3)  Those  in  ceps : anceps,  ancipitum,  doubtful. 

4)  Those  compounded  with  substantives  which  have  um:  imps  (ops, 
opum),  inopum,  helpless. 

Ikregula:^  Adjectives. 

159.  Irregular  adjectives  may  be — 

I.  Indeclinable  : frugi,  frugal,  good ; nequam,  worthless ; mille,  thou 
sand;  see  176. 

II.  Defective  : (ceterus)  cetera,  ceterum,  the  other,  the  rest ; (ludicer) 
ludicra,  ludicrum,  sportive ; (sons)  sontis,  guilty ; (seminex)  seminecis,  half 
dead ; pauci,  ae,  a,  few,  used  only  in  the  Plural ; see  also  158,  1. 

III.  Heteroclites. — Many  adjectives  have  two  distinct  forms,  one  in 
us,  a,  um,,  of  the  first  and  second  declensions,  and  one  in  is  and  e of  the 
third : hilarus  and  hilaris,  joyful ; exanimus  and  exanimis,  lifeless. 


COMPARISON. 


63 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

160.  Adjectives  have  three  forms,  called  the  Positive 
degree,  the  Comparative,  and  the  Superlative  i dltus,  di- 
tior, ditissimus,  high,  higher,  highest.  These  forms  denote 
different  degrees  of  the  quality  expressed  by  the  adjective. 

161.  The  Latin,  like  the  English,  has  two  modes  of  com- 
parison : 

SI.  Terjiinational  Comparison — by  endings. ' 
jll.  Adverbial  Comparison — by  adverbs, 

I.  Terminational  Comparison. 

162.  Adjectives  are  regularly  compared  by  adding  to  the 
stem  of  the  positive  the  endings  : 


Comparative. 
Masc.  Fem.  Neut. 

ior  ior  ius 


Masc. 

issimus 


Superlative. 

Fem.  Neut. 

issima  issimur 


altus,  altior,  altissimus,  high,,  higher^  highest,, 
levls,  levior,  levissimus,  light,,  lighter^  lightest. 

Note. — Vowel  Stems  lose  their  final  vowel:  alto,,  altior,,  altissimus. 

/163.  Irregular  Superlatives. — Many  adjectives  with  regu- 
lar comparatives  have  irregular  superlatives.  Thus : 

1.  Those  in  er  add  rimus  to  this  ending:  * dcer^  acrior^  acerrimus,  sharp. 
Note. — Yetus  has  neterrimus;  maturus,  both  maturrimus  and  maturissimus; 

dexter,  dextimus. 

2.  Six  in  ilis  add  limus  to  the  stem : ^ 

facilis,  difficilis,  easy,  difficult, 

similis,  dissimilis,  like,  unlike, 

gracilis,  humilis,  slender,  low : 

facilis,  facilior,  facillimus.  Imbecillis  has  imhecillimus. 

8.  Four  in  rus  have  two  irregular  superlatives :. 

exterus,  exterior,  extremus  and  extimus,  outward, 

inferus,  inferior,  infimus  and  imus,  lower, 

superus,  superior,  supremus  and  summus,  upper, 

posterus,  posterior,  postremus  and  postumus,  next. 

^ The  superlative  ending  is-simus  is  probably  compounded  of  is,  from  ids,  the  original 
comparative  ending  (154,  foot-note  4),  and  simus  for  timus;  ids-timus—  ids-simus  — 
is-simus.  After  I and  r,  the  first  element  is  omitted,  and  s assimilated  : facilis,  facil- 
simus,  facil-limus ; deer,  deer-simus,  deer-rimus;  but  those  in  ilis  drop  the  final 
vowel  of  the  stem.  See  Bopp,  §§  291-807;  Schleicher,  pp.  488-494;  Roby,  p.  Ixvi. 


64 


coMPAnmoK 


164.  Egenus^  providus^  and  compounds  in  dicus,  ficus,  and 
volus,  are  compared  with  the  endings  entior  and  entissimus,  as  if 
from  forms  in  ens: 

egenas,  egentior,  egentissimus,  needy^ 

providus,  providentior,  providentissimus,  prudent^ 

maledicus,  maledicentior,  maledicentissimus,  slanderous^ 

mCinificus,  munificentior,  munificentissimus,  liberal^ 

benevolus,  benevolentior,  benevolentissimus,  benevolent. 


Note. — Mirificissimus  occurs  as  the  superlative  oi  miri^cus^  wonderful. 

165.  Special  Irregulaiiities  of  Comparison. 


bonus. 

melior. 

optimus. 

good. 

malus. 

pejor. 

pessimus. 

bad. 

magnus. 

major. 

maximus. 

great. 

parvus. 

minor. 

minimus,  ' 

small. 

multus. 

plus. 

plurimus. 

much. 

Note  1. — Plus  is  neuter,  and  has  in  the  singular  only  Nom.  and  Acc.  plus^  and  Gen. 
pluris.  Id  the  plural  it  has  Nom.  and  Acc.  plures  (m.  and  i.).,  plura  (n.),  Gen.  pluri* 
um.  Dat  and  Abl.  pluribus. 

Note  Dives.,  and  nequam  are  thus  compared : 


j divitior, 

I ditior, 
frugalior, 
nequam,  nequior, 

166.  Positive  wanting. 


>1  dives, 
frugi. 


citerior,  citimus,  nearer.^ 

N deterior,  deterrimus,  ivorse., 

interior,  intimus,  inner., 

ocior,  ocissimus,  swifter., 

167.  Comparative  wanting. 


divitissimus,  ^ 
ditissimus,  i 
frugalissimus, 
nequissimus, 

prior, 

propior, 

ulterior. 


rich., 

frugal, 

worthless. 


primus,  former., 

proximus,  nearer, 
ultimus,  farther. 


1.  In  a few  participles  used  adjectively : meritus,  meritissimus,  deserving. 

2.  Inrthese  adjectives : 


diversus, 

falsus, 

inclutus, 

invitus. 


diversissimus,  different, 

falsissimus,  false, 

inclutissimus,  renoivned, 

invitissimus,  unwilling. 


^ovus, 

^'sacer, 

vetus. 


novissimus, 

sacerrimus, 

veterrimus. 


new, 

sacred, 

old. 


Note.— Many  participles  used  adjectively  are  compared  in  full : amans,  amantior.^ 
amantissimus,  loving ; docius,  doctior,  doctissimus,  instructed,  learned. 


168.  Superlative  wanting. 

1.  In  most  verbals  in  ills  and  hilis ; docilis,  docilior,  docile. 

2.  In  many  adjectives  in  alis  and  ilis : capitalis,  capitalior,  capital. 

8.  In  alacer,  alacrior,  active;  caecus,  blind;  diuturnus,  lasting;  longln* 
quus,  distant ; opimus,  rich  ; proclivis,  steep  ; propinquus,  near  ; salutaris, 
salutary,  and  a few  others. 

4.  Three  adjectives  supply  the  superlative  thus  : 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES, 


65 


-^ii^dolescens, 

juvenis, 

— senex, 


adolescentior, 

junior, 

senior. 


minimus  natu,i 
minimus  natu, 
maximus  natu. 


young,, 

young^ 

old. 


169.  Without  Terminational  Comparison. 

1.  Many  adjectives,  from  the  nature  of  their  signification,  especially  such 
as  denote  material,,  possession,,  or  the  relations  of  place  and  time : aureus, 
golden  ; paternus,,  paternal ; Bomdnus,,  Eoman ; aestivus,,  of  summer. 

2.  Most  adjectives  in  us  preceded  hy  a vowel : idoneus,,  suitable. 

3.  Many  derivatives  in  dlis,,  dris,,  llis,,  ulus,,  icus,,  Inus,,  drus : mdrtdlis 
(mors),  mortal. 

4.  Albus,,  white ; claudus,,  lame ; ferus,,  wild ; lassus,,  weary ; nnrus,,  won- 
derful, and  a few  others. 

II.  Adverbial  ComparisoJ^. 


170.  Adjectives  which  want  the  terminational  comparison,  form  the 
comparative  and  superlative,  when  their  signification  requires  it,  by  pre- 
fixing the  adverbs  magis,,  more,  and  mdxime,,  most,  to  the  positive : arduus,, 
magis  arduus,  mdxime  arduus,  arduous. 


1.  Other  adverbs  are  sometimes  used  with  the  positive  to  denote  different 
degrees  of  the  quality  : admodum,  valde,  oppido,  very  ; imprimis,  apprime,  in 
the  highest  degree.  Per  and  prae  in  composition  with  adjectives  have  the 
force  of  very : perdifficilis,  very  difficult ; praecldrus,  very  illustrious. 

2.  Strengthening  particles  are  also  sometimes  used — (1)  With  the  com- 
parative : etiam,  even,  multo,  longe,  much,  far : etiam  dlligentior,  even  more 
diligent;  multo  dlligentior,  much  more  diligent — (2)  With  the  superlative: 
multb,  longe,  much,  by  far;  quam,  as  possible:  multb  or  long'e  dlligentissi- 
mus,  by  far  the  most  diligent ; quam  dlligentissimiis,  as  diligent  as  possible. 


Numerals. 

171.  Numerals  comprise  numeral  adjectives  and  numeral 
adverbs.^ 

1 72.  Numeral  adjectives  comprise  three  principal  classes : 

1.  Cardinal  Numbers  : unus,  one ; duo,  two. 

2.  Ordinal  Numbers:  9,  first;  secundus, 

3.  Distributives  : singuli,  one  by  one ; ilnl,  two  by 
two,  two  each,  two  apiece. 

173.  To  these  may  be  added — 


1 Smallest  or  youngest  in  age.  Pdtu  is  sometimes  omitted. 

2 The  first  ten  cardinal  numbers,  mllle,  primus,  secundus,  and  semel  (once),  four- 
teen words  in  all,  furnish  the  basis  of  the  Latin  numeral  system.  All  other  numerals  arf* 
formed  from  these  either  by  derivation  or  by  composition. 

6 


66 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


1.  Multiplicatives,  adjectives  in  plex^  Gen.  plicis^  denoting  so  many 
fold : simplex^  single ; duplex^  double ; triplex.,  threefold. 

2.  Proportionals,  declined  like  lonus.,  and  denoting  so  many  times  as 
great : duplua.,  twice  as  great ; triplus.,  three  times  as  great.  , 

174.  Table  of  Numeral  Adjectives: 


Cardinals. 

Ordinals. 

Distributives 

1.  tinus,  tina,  tinum 

f)rimus,  first 

singuli,  one  hy  one 

2.  duo,  duae,  duo 

secundus, 4 second , 

bini,  two  hy  tivo 

3.  tres,  tria 

tertius,  third 

terni  (trini) 

4.  quattuor 

quartus,  fourth 

quaterni 

6.  quinque 

quintus,  fifth 

quini 

6.  sex 

sextus 

seni 

7.  septem 

septimus 

septeni 

8.  octo 

octavus 

octoni 

9.  novem 

nonus 

noveni 

10.  decem 

decimus 

aeni 

11.  tindecim 

undecimus 

undeni 

i 2.  duodecim 

duodecimus 

duodeni 

13.  tredecimi 

tertius  decimus  ^ 

terni  deni 

14.  quattuordecim 

quartus  decimus 

quaterni  deni 

15.  quindecim 

quintus  decimus 

quini  deui 

16.  sedecim  or  sexdecim  i 

sextus  decimus 

seni  deni 

17.  septendecim  1 

septimus  decimus 

septeni  deni 

18.  duodeviginti  ^ ' 

duodevicesimus  ® 

duodeviceni 

19.  undeviginti  2 

undevicesimus  ® 

undeviceni 

20.  viginti 

vicesimus  ^ 

viceni 

2^  { viginti  tinus 

vicesimus  primus 

viceni  singuli 

( tinus  et  viginti  ^ 

tinus  et  vicesimus  ^ 

singuli  et  viceni 

22  (viginti  duo 

vicesimus  secundus 

viceni  bini 

( duo  et  viginti 

alter  et  vicesimus 

bini  et  viceni 

30.  triginta 

tricesimus  7 

triceni 

40.  quadraginta 

quadragesimus 

quadrageni 

50.  quinquaginta 

quinquagesimus 

quinquageni 

60.  sexaginta  , 

sexagesimus 

sexageni  ' 

70.  septuaginta 

septuagesimus 

septuageni 

80.  octoginta 

octogesimus 

octogeni 

1 Sometimes  with  the  parts  separated  : decern  et  tres;  decern  et  sex.,  etc. 

2 Literally  two  from  twenty,  one  from  twenty,  by  subtraction ; but  these  numbers 
may  be  expressed  by  addition:  decern  ^et  octo ; decernet  novem  on  decem  novem;  so 
28,  29 ; 38,  39,  etc.,  either  by  subtraction  from  triginta.,  etc.,  or  by  addition  to  vlgintl. 

3 If  the  tens  precede  the  units,  et  is  omitted,  otherwise  it  is  generally  used.  So  in 
English  cardinals,  twenty-one,  one  and  twenty. 

4 Mter  is  often  used  for  secundus. 

® Decimus.,  with  or  without  et.,  may  precede : decimus  et  tertius  or  decimus  tertius 
® Sometimes  expressed  by  addition : octavus  decimus  and  nonus  decimus. 

’ Sometimes  written  with  g : vigesimus  ; trigesimus. 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


67 


Cardinals. 

Ordinals. 

Distributives. 

90.  nonaginta 

nonagesimus 

nonageni 

100.  centum 

centesimus 

centeni 

( centum  unus 

centesimus  primus 

centeni  singuli 

( centum  et  unus  ^ 

centesimus  et  primus 

centeni  et  singuli 

200.  ducenti,  ae,  a 

ducentesimus 

duceni 

300.  trecenti 

trecentesimus 

treceni 

400.  quadringenti 

quadringerrt  e simus 

quadringeni 

500.  quingenti 

quingentesimus 

quingeni 

600.  sescenti^ 

sescentesimus  2 

sesceni  2 

700.  septingenti 

septingentesimus 

septingeni 

800.  octingenti 

octingentesimus 

octingeni 

900.  nongenti 

nongentesimus 

non^eni 

,000.  mille 

millesimus 

singula  milia  3 

,000.  duo  milia  ^ 

bis  millesimus 

bina  milia 

,000.  centum  milia 

centies  millesimus 

centena  milia 

,000.  decies  centena 

decies  centies  millesi- 

decies  centena  mi- 

milia  ^ 


lia 


1.  Ordinals  with  pars^  part,  expressed  or  understood,  may  be  used  to 
express  fractions : tei^tia  pars^  a third  part,  a third ; quarta  vars^  a fourth ; 
duae  tertiae^  two  thirds. 

Note.— Cardinal  numbers  with  partes  are  used  in  fractions  when  the  denominator 
larger  than  the  numerator  by  one : duae  partes^  two  thirds,  tres  partes^  three  fourths,  etc. 


2.  Distributives  are  used — 

1)  To  show  the  number  of  objects  taken  at  a time,  often  best  rendered 
by  adding  to  the  cardinal  each  or  apiece:  ternos  denarios  acceperunt^  they 
received  each  three  denarii,  or  three  apiece.  Hence — 

2)  To  express  Multiplication : decies  centena  mllia^  ten  times  a hundred 
thousand,  a million. 

3)  Instead  of  Cardinals^  with  nouns  plural  in  form,  but  singular  in  sense : 
blna  castra^  two  camps.  Here  for  singuU  and  terni^  uni  and  trlnl  are  used  • 
unae  litterae^  one  letter ; trlnae  litterae^  three  letters. 

4)  Sometimes  of  objects  spoken  of  in  pairs : blnl  scyphl^  a pair  of  goblets ; 
and  in  the  poets  with  the  force  of  cardinals  : blna  hastilia^  two  spears. 

3.  Poets  use  numeral  adverbs  (181)  very  freely  in  compounding  numbers* 
bis  sex^  for  duodecim  ; bis  septem^  for  quattuordecim. 

4.  Sescentl  and  mille  are  sometimes  used  indefinitely  for  any  large  num- 
ber, as  one  thousand  is  used  in  English. 


1 In  compounding  numbers  above  100,  units  generally  follow  tens,  tens  hundreds,  etc., 
as  in  English ; but  the  connective  et  is  either  omitted,  or  used  only  between  the  two 
highest  denominations  : m'dle  centum  mgintl  or  mllle  et  centum  mginti.,  1120. 

2 Often  incorrectly  written  sercentl.,  sexcentesimus.,  and  sexceni. 

3 Often  written  millia.  For  duo  mllia^  blna  mUia  or  his  mllle  is  sometimes  used, 
^ Literally  “ten  times  a hundred  thousand”;  the  table  might  be  carried  up  to  any 

desired  number  by  using  the  proper  numeral  adverb  with  centma  mllia:  centies  cen- 
tena mllia\  10,000,000;  sometimes  in  such  combinations  centena  mllia  is  understood, 
emd  the  adverb  only  is  expressed,  and  sometimes  cemtum  mllia  is  used. 


68 


DECLENSION  OF  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


Declehsion  op  Numekal  Adjectives. 

175.  Unus,  Duo,  and  Tres  are  declined  as  follows: 


SINGULAR. 

Unus,  one. 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

unus 

una 

unum 

uni 

unae 

una 

Gen. 

unlus 

unlus 

unlus 

unorum 

unarum 

uno  run 

Bat. 

uni 

uni 

uni 

unis 

unis 

unis 

Acc. 

unum 

unam 

unum 

unos 

unas 

tina 

Voc. 

tine 

una 

unum 

uni 

unae 

ima 

Abl. 

uno 

una 

imo 

unis 

unis 

unis 

Duo,  two. 

Tres,  three. 

Nom. 

duo 

duae 

duo^ 

tres,  m. 

and  f. 

tria,  n. 

Qen. 

duorum 

duarum 

duorum  ^ 

trium 

trium 

Bat. 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

tribus 

tribus 

Acc. 

duos,  duo 

duas 

duo 

tres,  tris 

tria 

Voc. 

duo 

duae 

duo 

tres 

tria 

Abl. 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

tribus 

tribus 

Note  1. — The  plural  of  unus  in  the  sense  of  alone  may  be  used  with  any  noun  : uni 
Uhil^  the  Ubii  alone  ; but  in  the  sense  of  owe,  it  is  used  only  with  nouns  plural  in  form, 
but  singular  in  sense : una  castra.,  one  camp ; unae  litterae.,  one  letter. 

Note  2.— Like  duo  is  declined  amho.,  both. 

Note  3. — Multi.,  many,  and  plurimi.,  very  many,  are  indefinite  numerals,  and  as 
such  generally  want  the  singular.  But  in  the  poets  the  singular  occurs  in  the  sense  of 
many  a : multa  hostia.,  many  a victim. 

176.  The  Cardinals  from  quattuor  to  centum  are  indeclinable. 

177.  Hundreds  are  declined  like  the  plural  of  honm : ducerdi,  ae,  a. 

178.  Mllle  as  an  adjective  is  indeclinable ; as  a substantive  it  is  used 
in  the  singular  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative,^  but  in  the  plural  it  is 
declined  like  the  plural  of  mare  (63) : milia^^  milium.,  milihus. 

Note. — With  the  suhstantive  mllle.,  mllia,  the  name  of  the  objects  enumerated  is 
generally  in  the  Genitive : mllle  hominum.,  a thousand  men  (of  men) ; but  if  a declined 
numeral  intervenes  it  takes  the  case  of  that  numeral:  tria  mllia  trecenti  milites,  three 
thousand  three  hundred  soldiers. 

179.  Ordinals  are  declined  like  bonus,  and  distributives  like  the  jo/wra? 
of  bonus,  but  the  latter  often  have  um  instead  of  o7'um  in  the  Genitive : 
binum  for  bindrum\ 

1 In  the  ending  o in  duo  and  ambo  (1 75,  note  2),  we  have  a remnant  of  the  dual  num- 
ber which  has  otherwise  disappeared  from  the  Latin,  though  preserved  in  Greek  and  San- 
skrit. Compare  the  Sanskrit  dra,  the  Greek  Svo,  the  Latin  duo,  and  the  Enghsh  two. 

2 Instead  of  dubrum  and  ducirum,  duum  is  sometimes  used. 

3 Rarely  in  other  cases  in  connection  with  milium  or  milibus. 

^ Generally  written  with  one  I : mllia,  but  sometimes  with  two : mlUia, 


NUMERAL  ADVERBS. 


69 


180.  Numeral  Symbols: 


Arabic. 

Roman. 

Arabic. 

Roman. 

Arabic. 

Roman. 

1. 

I. 

12. 

XII. 

50. 

L. 

2. 

II. 

13. 

XIII. 

60. 

LX. 

3. 

III. 

14. 

XIV. 

70. 

LXX. 

4. 

IV. 

15. 

XV. 

80. 

LXXX. 

5. 

V. 

16. 

XVI. 

90. 

XC. 

6. 

VI. 

17. 

XVII. 

100. 

C. 

7. 

VII. 

18. 

XVIII. 

200. 

cc. 

8o 

VIII. 

19. 

XIX. 

500. 

ID, or  D. 

9. 

IX. 

20. 

XX. 

600. 

DC. 

10. 

X. 

30. 

XXX. 

1,000. 

CIO,  or  M.i 

11. 

XI. 

40. 

XL. 

10,000. 

CCIDD. 

1.  Latin  Numeral  Symbols  are  combinations  of:  1 = 1;  V = 5;  X = 10; 
L = 50 ; C = 100  ; 10  orT>  = 500  ; CIO  or  M = 1,000.2 

2.  In  the  Combination  of  these  symbols,  except  10,  observe — 

1)  That  the  repetition  of  a symbol  doubles  the  value  : II  = 2 ; XX  = 20. 

2)  That  any  symbol  standing  before  one  of  greater  value,  subtracts  its 
own  value,  but  that  after  one  of  greater  value,  it  adds  its  own  value : V = 5 ; 
IV  = 5-1  = 4;  VI  = 5 + 1 = 6. 

3.  In  the  Combination  of  10  observe — 

1)  That  each  0 (inverted  C)  after  10  increases  the  value  tenfold : 10  = 500 ; 
100  = 500  X 10  = 5,000  ; 1000  = 5,000  x 10  = 50,000. 

2)  That  these  numbers  are  doubled  by  placing  C the  same  number  of 
times  before  I as  0 stands  after  it : 10  = 500 ; CIO  = 500  x 2 = 1,000  ; 100  = 
5,000 ; CCIOO  = 5,000  x 2 = 10,000. 

3)  That  smaller  symbols  standing  after  these  add  their  value : 10  = 500 ; 
IOC  = 600 ; lOCC  = 700. 

Numeral  Adverbs. 


181.  To  numerals  belong  also  numeral  adverbs  : 


1.  semel,  once 

2.  bis,  twice 

3.  ter,  three  times 

4.  quater 


5.  quinquies  3 

6.  sexies 

7.  septies 

8.  octies 


9.  novies 

10.  decies 

11.  undecies 

12.  duodecies 


1 Thousands  are  sometimes  denoted  by  a line  over  the  symbol : II  = 2,000;  V = 5,000. 

2 The  orig-in  of  these  symbols  is  uncertain.  According  to  Mommsen,  I is  the  out- 
stretched finger ; F,  the  open  hand  ; the  two  hands  crossed  ; Z,  the  open  hand  like  V, 
but  in  a different  position;  CIO  is  supposed  to  be  a modification  of  the  Greek  not  other- 
wise used  by  the  Romans,  afterward  changed  to  3f;  10,  afterward  changed  to  Z>,  is  a 
part  of  CTO  ; Cis  also  supposed  to  be  a modification  of  the  Greek  ©,  but  it  may  be  the 
initial  letter  of  centum,  as  4/ may  be  that  of  m'llle. 

3 In  adverbs  formed  from  cardinal  numbers,  i^s  is  the  approved  ending,  though  iens 
often  occurs.  In  adverbs  from  indefinite  numeral  adjectives  iens  is  the  approved  ending  ; 
toUens  (from  tof),  so  often;  quotiens  (from  quot),  how  often.  See  Brambach,  p.  14. 


70 


PRONOUNS. 


quaterdecies 

quattuordecies 


^ qmnquiesdecies 
■ (quindecies 


j sexiesdecies 
'( sedecies 


I terdecies 
(tredecies 


20.  vicies 

21.  semel  et  vicies 

22.  bis  et  vicies 
30.  tricies 

40.  quadragies 
50.  quinquagies 
60.  sexagies 
70.  septuagies 
80.  octogies 
90.  nonagies 

100.  centies 

101.  centies  semel 

102.  centies  bis 


200.  ducenties 
300.  trecenties 
400.  quadringenties 
500.  quingenties . 
600.  sescenties 
700.  septingenties 
800.  octingenties 


17.  septiesdecies 


moningenties 


900. 

I: 


!nongenties 


18.| 


( duodevicies 
(octiesdecies 


1.000.  milliesi 

2.000.  bis  mtllies 
100,000.  centies  millies 


I tode  vicies 
( noviesdecies 


1,000,000.  millies  millies 


Note  1.— In  compounds  of  units  and  tens,  the  unit  with  et  generally  precedes,  as  in 
the  table  : Ms  et  vlcies;  the  tens,  however,  with  or  without  et,  may  precede. 

Note  2. — Another  class  of  numeral  adverbs  in  um  or  d is  formed  from  the  ordinals: 
primum,  prlmo,  for  the  first  time,  in  the  first  place ; tertium,  tertio,  for  the  third  time. 


V 182.  Ik  construction,  Pronouns^  are  used  either  as  Sub- 
stantives: ego,  I,  tUy  thou;  or  as  Adjectives:  mens,  my, 

183.  Pronouns  are  divided  into  six  classes  : 

1.  Personal  Pronouns  : tu,  thou. 

2.  Possessive  Pronouns  : mens,  my. 

3.  Demonstrative  Pronouns  : liic,  this. 

4.  Kelative  Pronouns  : qul,  who. 

5.  Interrogative  Pronouns  : quis,  who  ? 

6.  Indefinite  Pronouns  : aliquis,  some  one. 


>^184.  Personal  Pronouns/  so  called  because  they  desig- 
nate the  person  of  the  noun  which  they  represent,  are  : 


1 Millies  is  often  used  indefinitely  like  the  English  a thousand  times. 

2 But  in  their  signification  and  use.  Pronouns  differ  widely  from  ordinary  substantiveff 

n,nd  adjectives,  as  they  never  name  any  object,  action,  or  quality,  but  point  out 

Us  relation  to  the  speaker,  or  to  some  other  person  or  thing;  see  314,  II.,  with  foot-note 

* Also  called  Substantive  Pronouns,  because  they  are  always  used  substantively. 


CHAPTER  III 


PRONOUNS. 


I.  Peesonal  Pronouns. 


J 

Ego,  I. 


mONOXTNB. 

'f^u,  tJiou. 

SINGULAR. 


Sui,  of  himself  etc.* 


Nom.  ego^ 

tu 

Gen.  me! 

tul 

sui  * 

Dat.  mihi  or  ml. 

tibi 

sibi 

Acc.  me 

te 

se 

Voc. 

tu 

Ahl.  me 

te 

se 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  nos 

VOS 

(nostrum 

vestrum 

sui 

(nostrl 

vestrl  ) 

Bat.  nobis 

vobis 

sibi 

Acc.  nCs 

VOS 

se 

Voc. 

VOS 

Ahl.  nobis 

vobis 

se 

1.  The  Case-Endings  of  Pronouns  differ  considerably  from  those  of  Nouns. 

2.  Sui,  of  himself  ^ etc.,  is  often  called  the  Reflexive  pronoun. 

3.  Emphatic  Forms  in  met  occur,  except  in  the  Gen.  Plur. : egomet^  I my- 
self; f^et^  etc.  But  the  Nom.  tu  has  tute  and  tutemet^  not  tumet. 

4.  Eeduplicated  Forms. — Sese.^  tete.,  for  56,  ^6,  me. 

5.  Ancient  and  Pare  Forms. — Mis  for  mel ; tls  iox  tul med  and  mepte 
for  me  ; ted  for  te ; s'ed.,  sepse.,  for  se. 

6.  Cum,  when  used  with  the  ablative  of  a Personal  Pronoun,  is  appended 
to  it ; mecum.,  tecum. 


II.  Possessive  Pronouns. 


185.  From  Personal  pronouns  are  formed  the  Possessives: 

meus,  a,  um,  my  ; noster,  tra,  trum,  our ; 

tuns,  a,  um,  thy^  your ; vester,  tra,  trum,  your ; 

suus,  a,  um,  Ais,  hers.,  its;  suus,  a,  um,  their. 


9) 


V 


1 Of  himself  herself  itself.  The  Nominative  is  not  used. 

2 Ego  has  no  connection  in  form  with  me%  mih%  etc.,  but  it  corresponds  to  the 
Greek  eycoi/,  lyoi.  The  oblique  cases  of  ego  and  tii  in  the  singular  are  derived  from  the 
Indo-European  roots  ma  and  Poa.  Compare  the  Accusative  Singular  of  each  in — 

Sanskrit.  Greek.  Latin.  English. 

ma-m  or  ma,  /u.e,  me,  me. 

tva-m  or  tva,  re  or  o-e,  te,  thee. 

/Sul,  sibi,  se,  in  both  numbers  are  formed  from  the  root  sva.  The  origin  of  the  plural 
forms  of  ego  and  tu  is  obscure.  See  Papillon,  pp.  142-149;  Kiihnor,  I.,  pp.  378-382. 

•3  Vestrum  and  vestrl  are  also  written  vostrum  and  vostrl,  though  less  correctly. 
Mel,  tul,  sul,  nostrl,  and  vestrl,  are  in  form  strictly  Possessives  in  the  Gen.  Sing., but  bj 
use  they  have  become  Personal.  Rostri  and  vestrl  have  also  become  Plural.  Thus,  memot 
vestrl,  ‘mindful  of  you,’  means  literally  mindful  of  yours,  i.  e.,  of  your  welfare,  intere.st 
Nostrum  and  vestrum,  for  nostrorum  and  vestrorum,  are  also  Possessives ; see  185. 


PRONOUNS. 


Note  1.-  Posaessives  are  declined  as  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensioBBi 
but  mens  has  in  the  Vocative  Singular  Masculine  generally  sometimes  meus.^  and  in 
the  Genitive  Plural  sometimes  meum  instead  of  meorum.^ 

Note  2.— Emphatic  forms  in  pte  and  met  occur:  suapte.,  suamet. 

Note  3. — Other  possessives  are:  (1)  cujus^  a,  ‘whose,’  and  cvjns.,  a, 

‘whose?’  declined  like  honus^  and  (2)  the  Patrials,  nostras^  Genitive  atis,  ‘of  our  coun- 
try,’ vestras^  Genitive  Citis.,  ‘ of  your  country,’  and  cujds^  Genitive  dtis^  ‘ of  whose  coun- 
try,* declined  as  adjectives  of  Declension  III. 

III.  Demonstrative  Pronouns. 

1 86.  Demonstrative  Pronouns,  so  called  because  they  spe- 
cify the  objects  to  which  they  refer,  are  declined  as  follows: 
I.  Hic, 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

iVbm.  hic 

haec 

hoc 

hl 

hae’ 

haec 

Gen.  hujus 

hujus 

hujus  ® 

h5rum 

harum 

horum 

Dat.  huic 

huic 

huic 

his 

his 

his 

Acc.  hunc 

hanc 

hoc® 

hos 

has 

haec 

Ahl.  hoc 

hac 

hoc 

his 

his 

his 

II.  Iste, 

tha%  that  of  yours 

see  450. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom.  iste 

ista 

istud 

isti 

istae 

ista 

Gen.  istius 

istius 

istius  ^ 

istorum 

istarum 

istorum 

Dat.  isti 

isti 

isti 

istis 

istis 

istis 

Acc.  istum 

istam 

istud  ® 

istos 

istas 

ista 

Abl.  isto 

ista 

isto 

istis 

istis 

istis 

1 In  early  Latin  tims  is  sometimes  written  toxos^  and  suus^  sovos. 

2 From  the  relative  qu%  ciijus  (187),  also  written  quoins. 

3 From  the  interrogativ  o quis.,  cujus  (188),  also  written  quoins. 

4 The  stem  of  hie  is  Ao,  Aor,  which  by  the  addition  of  i,  another  pronominal  stem, 
ueen  in  ^-s,  ‘he,’  b'^conies  in  certain  cases  hi  (for  ho-i\  liae  (for  ha-i).,  as  in  A!-c,  hae-c. 
The  forms  Ao,  A«,  appear  in  Ad-o,  Tia-nc.  Ancient  and  rare  forms  of  this  pronoun  are 
Tiec  (for  Ale),  hoi  us  (for  hujm).,  hole.,  hoice  (for  huic\  hone  (for  hunc\  heis.,  heisce.,  his., 
hlsce  (for  hice.,  hi).,  hlhus  (for  his). 

® The  Genitive  suffix  is  ^ls.,  appended  to  the  stem  after  the  addition  of  i (foot-note  4) : 
ho  i-us.,  hujus  (i  changed  toj  between  tv/o  vowels,  38) , isto-i-us.,  istius  (i  retained  after 
a consonant).  The  suffix  us.,  originally  as.,  is  in  origin  the  same  as  the  suffix  is  in  the 
third  declension.  In  one  the  original  vowel  a is  weakened  to  u,  and  in  the  other  to  i 
See  Wordsworth,  p.  95 ; Corssen,  I.,  p.  307. 

In  prose  i in  the  ending  ius  is  generally  long. 

Demonstrative,  Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefinite  Pronouns  want  the  Vocativa 

^ Here  the  form  with  e,  haec,  is  sometimes  used. 

^ The  stem  of  iste  (for  istus)  is  isto  in  the  Masc.  and  Neut.,  and  ista  in  the  Fern.  0 
iB  weakened  to  e in  iste  (34,  1,  note)  and  to  u in  istu-d.  Ancient  and  rare  forms  of  iste 


PRONO  UKB.  'J'3 

III.  Ille,  that^^  that  one^  he^  is  declined  like  iste ; see  II.  on  the 
preceding  page. 

IV.  Is,  he^  this^  that."^ 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Maso. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Nettt. 

Nom.  is 

ea 

id 

el,  ii 

eae 

ea 

Oen:  ejus 

ejus 

ejus 

eorum 

earum 

eorum 

Bat.  ei 

ei  2 

els,  ils 

eis,  iis 

eis,  iis 

Acc.  eum 

earn. 

id  4 

eos 

eas 

ea 

Ahl.  eo 

ea 

eo 

els,  ils 

eis,  iis 

eis,  iis 

V.  Ipse,  self,  he.^ 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom.  ipse 

ipsa 

ipsum 

ipsi 

ipsae 

ipsa 

Gen.  ipsius 

ipsius 

ipsius  , 

ipsorum 

ipsarum 

ipsorum 

Oat.  ip  si 

ipsi 

ipsI 

ipsis 

ipsis 

ipsis 

Acc.  ipsum 

ipsam 

ipsum 

ipsos 

ipsas 

ipsa 

Ahl.  ipso 

ipsa 

ips5 

ipsis 

ipsis 

ipsis 

VI.  Idem,  the  same.  ® 


are  istus  (for  iste\  forms  in  % ae,  I (for  %us)  in  the  Genitive,  and  in  d,  ae^  o (for  V)  in  the 
Dat. : istl  (for  istlus)^  isto  (for  istl\  istae  (for  istlus  or  istl). 

1 The  stem  otille  (for  Ulus)  is  illo^  ilia.  Ancient  and  rare  forms  are  (1)  Ulus  (for 
ille).,  forms  in  % cte,  I (for  \us)  in  the  Genitive  Singular,  and  in  d,  «e,  d (for  1)  in  the 
Dative  Singular : illl  (for  iUlus\  etc. ; (2)  forms  from  ollus  or  olle  (for  those  from  ille) : 
ollus.,  olle.,  olla.,  etc. 

2 The  stem  of  is  is  strengthened  in  most  of  its  case-forms  to  eo,  ea.  Ancient  or 
rare  forms  of  is  are,  eis  (for  is) ; e-i-ei.,  ei-ei.,  i-ei,  eae  (for  Dative  Singular  il)  ; im.,  em 
(for  eum) ; e-eis.,  i-eis.,  eis  (for  Nominative  Plural  el);  e-i-eis,  ei-eis,  e-eis.,  ibus.,  edbus 
(for  els).  To  these  may  he  added  a few  rare  forms  from  a root  of  kindred  meaning,  so, 
sa : sum.,  sam=eum,  earn;  sos,  sds=:eds,  eds.  This  root  appears  in  ip-sus,  ip-sa.,  ip- 
sum,  Si,  if,  and  sl-c,  thus,  are  probably  Locatives  from  this  root  or  from  sva,  the  root 
of  s^ul  (184). 

3 Sometimes  a diphthong  in  poetry.  In  the  same  way  the  plural  forms  el,  il,  els,  Us, 
are  sometimes  monosyllables.  Instead  of  il  and  Us,  I and  Is  are  sometimes  written. 

^ See  page  72,  foot-note  6. 

® Ipse  (for  ipsus  = i-pe-sus)  is  compounded  of  is  or  its  stem  i,  the  intensive  particle 
pe,  ‘ even,’  ‘ indeed,’  and  the  pronominal  root  so,  sa,  mentioned  in  foot-note  2 above. 
The  stem  is  ipso,  ipsa,  but  forms  occur  with  tbe  first  part  declined  and  pse  unchanged  : 
eum-pse,  eam-pse,  etc. ; sometimes  combined  with  re : redpse  = re-edpse  = re  ipsd,  ‘in 
reality.’  Ipsus  (for  ipse)  is  not  uncommon. 

® In  Idem,  compounded  of  is  and  dem,  only  the  first  part  is  declined.  Isdem  is 
shortened  to  Idem,  iddem  to  idem,  and  m is  changed  to  n before  dem  (33,  4).  In 
early  Latin  eisdem  and  Isdem  occur  for  Idem  j eidem  and  Idem  for  idem;  eisdem 
end  Isdem  in  the  Nominative  Plural  for  eldem. 


U PRO  m ms. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL, . 

Maso. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Worn.  Idem 

eadem 

idem 

j eldem  2 
( ildem 

eaedem 

eadem 

Gen. 

ejusdem 

ejusdem 

ejusdem 

eorundem 

earundem 

eorundem 

Pat. 

eldem 

eldem 

Cldem  ^ 

j elsdem 
( ilsdem 

elsdem 

ilsdem 

elsdem  ^ 
ilsdem 

Acc. 

eundem 

eandem 

idem 

eosdem 

easdem 

eadem 

Ahl. 

eodem 

eadem 

eodem 

j elsdem 
i ilsdem 

elsdem 

ilsdem 

elsdem  * 
ilsdem 

1.  Hic  (iov  M-ce)  is  compounded  with  the  demonstrative  particle  ce^ 
meaning  here.  The  forms  in  c have  dropped  e,  while  the  other  forms  have 
dropped  the  particle  entirely.  But  ce  is  often  retained  for  emphasis ; liice., 
hujusce^  hosce^  horunce  (m  changed  to  ?^),  liorunc  (e  dropped).  Ce,  changed 
to  ci,  is  generally  retained  before  the  interrogative  ne : hicine^  hoscine. 

2.  IllTc  and  Istic, ^ also  compounded  with  the  particle  co,  are  declined 
alike,  as  follows : 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Nettt. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom.  illlc  . 

lllaec 

illuc  (illoc) 

illic 

illacc 

illaec 

Gen.  illiusce 

illiusce 

illiusce  4 

Pat.  illic 

illic 

illic 

illisce 

illisce 

illisce 

Acc.  illunc 

illanc 

illuc  (illoc) 

illosce 

illasce 

illaec 

Abl.  illoc 

iliac 

illoc 

illisce 

illisce 

illisce 

3.  Syncopated  Forms,  compounded  of  eece  or  m,  ‘ lo,’  ‘ see,’  and  some 
cases  of  demonstratives,  especially  the  Accusative  of  ille  and  occur:  eeeum 
for  ecee  eum  / eecbs  for  eece  ebs  / ellum  for  en  ilium  / ellam  for  en  illam. 

4.  Demonstrative  Adjectives  : tdlis.^  6,  such ; tantus.^  a,  so  great ; tot.^ 
so  many ; totus.^  «,  um.^  so  great.  Tot  is  indeclinable ; the  rest  regular. 

Note. — For  the  Genitive  of  a demonstrative  with  modi  (Genitive  of  modu&^ 

measure,  kind)  is  often  used : hvjusmodl.,  ejusmodt.,  of  this  kind,  such. 

IV.  Kelative  Pronouns. 

\ The  Relative  qul,  ^wlio/  so  called  because  it  re- 

lates to  some  noun  or  pronoun^  expressed  or  understood, 
called  its  antecedent,  is  declined  as  follows  : ^ 

1 Sometimes  a dissyllable. 

2 Eldem  and  elsdem  are  the  approved  forms.  Instead  of  ildem  and  iisdem^  dis- 
syllables in  poetry,  Idem  and  Isdem  are  often  written. 

3 lllic  and  istlc  are  formed  from  the  stems  of  ille  and  iste  in  the  same  manner  as  JtiC 
Is  formed  from  its  stem ; see  page  72,  foot-note  4. 

4 Observe  that  ce  is  retained  in  full  after  ,9.  but  shortened  to  c in  all  other  situations. 

® The  stem  of  qul  is  quo.,  qua^  which  becomes  co,  cu  in  ciljus  and  cui.  Qul  and 


PROmUNS,  75 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

N’om.  qul 

quae 

quod 

qui 

quae 

quae 

Gen.  cujus 

cujus 

cujus 

quorum 

quarum 

• quorum 

Dat.  cui 

cui 

cui 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

Acc.  quem  ^ 

quam 

quod 

quos 

quas 

quae 

Abi.  quo 

qua 

quo 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

1.  Qul  2 =r  quo.^  ‘ with  which,’ 

of  the  relative  qul. 

‘wherewith,’  h 

5 a Locatire 

or  Ablative 

2.  Cum^  when  used  with  the  Ablative  of  the  relative,  is  generally  appended 
to  it : quibuscum. 

3.  Qulcumque  and  Quisquis^  ‘ whoever,’  are  called  from  their  signification 
general  relatives.^  Qulcumque  (quicunque)  is  declined  like  qul.  Quisquis  is 
rare  except  in  the  forms,  quisquis^  quidquid  (quicquid),  quoquo, 

Note. — The  parts  of  Qulcumque  are  sometimes  separated  by  one  or  more  words : 
qua  re  cumque. 

4.  Eelative  Adjectives  : qudlis.^  e,  such  as ; quantus.^  u,  so  great ; 
quot.^  as  many  as ; quotus.^  a,  um.^  of  which  number ; and  the  double  and 
compound  forms : qualisqualis.^  qudliscumque.^  etc. 

Note. — For  Qualis  the  Genitive  of  the  relative  with  modi  is  often  used  : cujusmod% 
oj^whatkind,  such  as;  cujuscumquemodl.,  cuicuimodi  (for  cvjuscujusmodl\  of  what- 
ever kind. 

V.  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

!/-"l88.  The  Interrogative  Pronouns  quis  and  qul,  with 
their  compounds/  are  used  in  asking  questions.  They  are 
declined  as  follows  : 

quae  are  formed  from  quo  and  qua  like  hi  and  hae  in  hi-c  and  hae-c  from  ho  and  ha  ; see 
186,  I.,  foot-note  4.  Ancient  or  rare  forms  are  quei.,  quis  (for  qul),  Nom.  Sing. ; quoius 
(i=j)\  quoi,  cui  (for  cujus,  as  in  cuimodl  = cujusmodl),  quoiei,  quoi  (for  cui)\  ques 
(for  qul),  Nom.  Plur. ; quai  (for  quae),  Fern,  and  Neut.  Plur. ; queis,  quis  (for  quibus). 

1 An  Accusative  quom^  also  written  quum  and  cum,  formed  directly  from  the  stem 
quo,  became  the  conjunction  quorri,  quum,  cum,  ‘ when,’  lit.  during  which,  i.  e.,  during 
which  time.  Indeed,  several  conjunctions  are  in  their  origin  Accusatives  of  pronouns  *. 
quam,  ‘in  what  way,’  ‘how,’  is  the  Accusative  of  ; quamquam,  ‘however  much,’ 
the  Accusative  of  quis-quis  (187,  3);  turn,  ‘then,’  and  tarn,  ‘so,’  Accusatives  of  the 
pronominal  stem  to,  ta,  seen  in  is-tus,  is-te,  is-ta  (186,  II.,  foot-note  8). 

2 This  is  an  element  in  quin  = qul-ne,  ‘ by  which  not,’  ‘ that  not,’  and  in  quippe  = 
qul-pe,  ‘indeed.’ 

3 Relative  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  may  be  made  general  in  signification  by 

cumque,  like  qul-cumque,  or  by  being  doubled  like  quis-quis:  qudlis-cumque, 
quCdis-qudlis,  of  whatever  kind ; ubl-cumque,  uhi-ubl,  wheresoever. 

^ The  relative  qul,  the  interrogativos  quifi,  qul,  and  the  indefinites  quis,  qul,  are 
all  formed  from  the  stem  quo,  qua.  The  ancient  and  rare  forms  are  nearly  the  same  in 
all;  see  page  7i,  foot-note  5. 


76 


PRONOUNS. 


I.  Quis,  wJio^  idMcIi^  what? 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom.  quis 

quae 

quid 

qui 

quae 

quae 

Gen.  cujus 

cujus 

cujus 

quorum 

quarum 

quorum 

Dat.  cui 

cui 

cui 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

Acc.  quem 

quam 

quid 

quos 

quas 

quae 

Abi.  quo 

qua 

quo 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

II.  Qui,  wJiicJi^  what  f is  declined  like  the  relative  qul. 

1.  Quis  is  generally  used  substantively,  and  QuI,  adjectively.  The  forms 
quis  and  quern  are  sometimes  feminine. 

2.  Qui^  how  ? in  what  way  ? is  a Locative  or  Ablative  of  the  interrogative 
quis ; see  187,  1. 

3.  Compounds  of  quis  and  qui  are  declined  like  the  simple  pronouns  : quis- 
nam^  qulnam^  ecquis^  etc.  But  ecquis  has  sometimes  ecqua  for  ecquae. 

4.  Interrogative  Adjectives  : qudlis.,  6,  what?  quantus.^  a,  'wm,  how 
great  ? quot.,  how  many  ? quotus.,  um.,  of  what  number  ? uter.,  utra^  utrum., 
which  (of  two)  ? see  151. 


YI.  Indefinite  Pronouns. 

189.  Indefinite  Pronouns  do  not  refer  to  any  definite 
persons  or  things.  The  most  important  are  quis  and  qul, 
with  their  compounds. 


190.  Quis,  ^any  one/  and  qul,  ^any  one/  ^any/  are 
the  same  in  form  and  declension  as  the  interrogativos  quis 
and  qul.  But — 


1.  After  s?,  nisi^  ?^e,  and  num^  the  Fern.  Sing,  and  Neut.  Plur.  have  quae 
or  qua:  si  quae,  si  qua. 

2.  From  quis  and  qul  are  formed — 


1)  The  Indefifhites  : 


aliquis, 
quispiam,  ’ 
quidam, 
quisquam, 


aliqua, 
quaepiam, 
quaedam, 
quae  quam. 


aliquid  or  aliquod,' 
quidpiam  or  quodpiam, 2 
quiddam  or  quoddam, 3 
quicquam  or  quidquam, ^ 


some.,  some  one. 
some.,  some  one. 
certain.,  certain  one. 
any  one. 


' is  compounded  of  aZi,  seen  in  quisquam.,otquis2,ndquam;  quis- 

que., of  q^(,is  and  que  (from  qul)\  qulms.,  of  qul  and  the  verb  vis  (393),  ‘you  wish’ — 
hence  qul-vls.,  ‘any  you  wish’;  quilibet.,  of  qul  and  the  impersonal  libet^  ‘it  pleases.’ 

2 Also  written  quippiam,  quoppiam. 

3 Quldam  changes  m to  n before  d : quendam  for  quemdam. 

^ Quisquam  generally  wants  the  Fern,  and  the  Plur. 


PRONOUNS. 


77 


2)  The  General  Indefinites : 

quisque,  quaeque,  quidque  or  quodque,^  every ^ every  one. 

quivis,  quaevis,  quidvis  or  quodvis,  any  one  you  'please. 

quilibet,  quaelibet,  quidlibet  or  quodlibet,  any  one  you  please. 

Note  1. — These  compounds  are  generally  declined  like  quis  and  but  they  have 
in  the  Neut.  Sing,  q'aod  used  adjectivel'y.,  and  quid  substantively. 

Note  ^.—Aliquis  has  aUqua  instead  of  aliquae  in  the  Fern.  Sing,  and  Neut.  Plur. 
Aliqul  for  aliquis  occurs. 

191.  The  correspondence  which  exists  between  Demonstratives,  Rela- 
tives, Interrogatives,  and  Indefinites,  is  seen  in  the  following 


Table  of  Correlatives. 


Intekkogatiye. 

Indefinite. 

Demonstrative. 

Eelative. 

quis.,  qul., 
who  ? what  ? 2 

quis.,  qul^^  any  one, 
any;  aliquis^^  some 
one,  some ; quldam., 
certain  one,  certain ; 

Me,  this  one,  this;'^ 
iste.,  that  one,  that; 
ille.,  that  one,  that; 
is.,  he,  that ; 

who. 

uter.,  which 
of  two  ? 

uter  or  alteruter.,  ei- 
ther of  two ; 

uterque.,  each,  both ; s 

qui.,  w'ho. 

qudlis.,  of 
what  kind  ? 

qudlislibet^^  of  any 
kind ; 

tdlis.,  such ; 

qudlis^^  as. 

quantus.,  how 
great  ? 

aliquantus.,  some- 
what great  ; quan- 
tusvls.,  as  great  as 
you  please ; 

tantus.,  so  great ; 

quantus.,^  as, 
as  great. 

quot.,  how 
many? 

aliquot.,  some ; 

tot.,  so  many ; 

quot.,  as,  as 
many. 

Note. — Nescih  quis.,  ‘ I know  not  who,’  has  become  in  effect  an  indefinite  pronoun 
= quid  am.,  ‘some  one.’  So  also  nescio  qul.,  ‘ I know  not  which’  or  ‘what’  = • some’; 
nescio  quot  = aliquot.,  ‘ some,’  ‘ a certain  number.’ 


1 In  unus-qwisque  both  parts  are  regularly  declined. 

Observe  that  the  question  quis  or  qul.,  who  or  what?  may  be  answered  indefi- 
nitely by  q'uis.,  qul.,  aliquis.,  etc.,  or  defimitely  by  a demonstrative,  either  alone  or  with 
a relative,  as  by  7ifc,  this  one,  or  Ale  gm,  this  one  who;  is.,  he,  or  is  qul.,  he  who,  etc. 

3 in  form  observe  that  the  indefinite  is  either  the  same  as  the  interrogative  or  is  a 
compound  of  it : q'uis.,  ali-quis.,  qul.,  qul-dam.,  and  that  the  relative  is  usually  the  same 
as  the  interrogative. 

4 On  Me,  iste.,  ille.,  and  is,  see  450;  451, 1. 

® Or  one  of  the  demonstratives,  Ale,  iste.,  ete. 


78 


VERBS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

VERBS. 

192.  Vekbs  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  express  existence, 
condition^  or  action:  est,  he  is;  dormit,  he  is  sleeping; 
legit,  he  reads. 

193.  Verbs  comprise  two  principal  classes: 

I.  Teansitive  Verbs  admit  a direct  object  of  the  action  : 
servum  vert) erat,  he  beats  the  slave.  ^ 

II.  Inteaxtsitiye  Verbs  do  not  admit  such  an  object: 
puer  currit,  the  boy  runs.^ 

1 94.  Verbs  have  Voice,  Mood,  Tense,  Number,  and  Person. 

I . Voices. 

1 95.  There  are  two  voices : 

I.  The  Active  Voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting 
or  EXISTING  : pater  f Ilium  amat,  the  father  loves  his  son; 
est,  he  is. 

II.  The  Passive  Voice  represents  the  subject  as  acted 
UPON  by  some  other  person  or  thing : fllius  a patre  ama- 
tur, the  son  is  loved  by  his  father. 

1.  Intransitive  Verbs  generally  have  only  the  active  voice,  hut  are  some- 
times used  impersonally  in  the  passive  ; see  301,  1.- 

2.  Deponent  Verbs s are  Passive  in  form,  hut  not  in  sense:  loquor 
speak.  But  see  831. 

II.  Moods. 

196.  There  are  three  moods 

1 Here  ser'oum^  ‘the  slave,’  is  the  object  of  the  action  : heats  (what?)  the  slave.  The 
object  thus  completes  the  meaning  of  the  verb.  He  heats  is  incomplete  in  sense,  but  the 
hoy  runs  is  complete,  and  accordingly  does  not  admit  an  object. 

2 Voice  shows  whether  the  subject  acts  (Active  Voice),  or  is  acted  upon  (Passive 

Voice).  Thus,  with  the  Active  Voice,  ^ the  father  loves  his  so77f  the  subject,  ie 

the  one  who  performs  the  action,  loves.,  while  with  the  Passive  Voice,  '•the  sor.  is  loved 
hy  the  father  f the  subject,  son,  merely  receives  the  action^  is  acted  upon.,  is  loved. 

2 So  called  from  deponh.,  to  lay  aside,  as  they  dispense,  in  general,  with  the  active 
form  and  the  passive  meaning.  For  deponent  verbs  with  the  sense  of  the  Greek  Middle, 
see  465. 

4 Mood.,  or  Mode.,  means  manner.,  and  relates  to  the  manner  in  which  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  is  expressed,  as  will  be  seen  by  observing  the  force  of  the  several  Moodi. 


VERBS. 


79 


I.  The  Indicative  Mood  either  asserts  something  as  a 
/ac^  or  inquires  after  the  fact: 

Legit.,  HE  IS  READING.  Legitue,  is  he  reading?  Servius  regnavit.,  Ser- 
iius REIGNED.  Quis  6g0  SUm,  lu/lO  AM 

II.  The  Subjunctive  Mood  expresses  not  an  actual  fact, 
but  a possibility  or  conception.  It  is  best  translated  ’ — 

1.  Sometimes  by  the  English  auxiliaries,^  let.^  niay,  mighty  should, 
would : 

Amemus  patriam,  let  us  love  our  country.  Sint  beati,  may  they  be 
happy.  Quaerat  quispiam,  some  one  may  inquire.  H6c  nemo  duxerit,  no  one 
WOULD  SAY  this.  Ego  censeam.,  I should  think,  or  I am  inclined  to  think. 
Enititur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  that  he  may  conquer. ^ Domum  ubi  habitaret, 
legit,  he  selected  a house  where  he  might  dwell. 

2.  Sometimes  by  the  English  Indicative,  especially  by  the  Future 
forms  with  shall  and  will: 

Huic  ceddmus,  shall  we  yield  to  this  one?  Quid  dies  ferat  incertum  est, 
what  a day  will  bring  forth  is  uncertain.  Dubito  num  debeam,  1 doubt 
whether  I ought.  Quaesivit  si  liceret,  he  inquired  whether  it  was  lawful. 

3.  Sometimes  by  the  Imperative,  especially  in  prohibitions  : 

Scribere  ne  pigrere,  do  not  neglect  to  write.  Ne  transieris  Iberum,  do 
not  CROSS  the  Ebro. 

4.  Sometimes  by  the  English  Infinitive:  ^ 

Contendit  ut  vincat,  he  strives  to  conquer.®  Missi  sunt  qui  consulerent 
Apollinem,  they  were  sent  to  consult,  Apollo. 

III.  The  Impekative  Mood  expresses  a command  or  an 
entreaty : 

Justitiam  cole,  practise  justice.  Tu  ne  cede  malls,  do  not  yield  to  mis- 
fortunes. 

1 The  use  and  proper  translation  of  the  Subjunctive  must  be  learned  from  the  Syn- 
tax. A few  illustrations  are  here  given  to  aid  the  learner  in  understanding  the  Para- 
digms of  the  Verbs;  see  477-530. 

2 This  is  generally  the  proper  translation  in  simple  sentences  and  in  principal  clauses 
(483),  and  sometimes  even  in  subordinate  clauses  (490). 

3 Or,  he  strives  to  conquer;  eee  4 below,  with  foot-note  4. 

4 The  English  has  a few  remnants  of  the  Subjunctive  Mood,  which  may  also  be  used 
in  translating  the  Latin  Subjunctive:  Utinam  possem,  would  that  I were  able. 

® Observe,  however,  that  the  Infinitive  here  is  not  the  translation  of  the  Subjunc- 
tive alone,  but  of  the  Subjunctive  with  its  subject  and  connective : ut  vincat,  to  con- 
quer (lit.,  that  he  may  conquer') ; qui  consulerent,  to  consult  (Ut.,  who  should  or  would 
consult). 


80 


VERBS, 


III.  Tenses. 

197.  There  are  six  tenses: 

I.  Three  Tekses  for  Incomplete  Action: 

1.  Present:  mno,  I love^  I am  loying.^ 

2.  Imperfect:  amdiam^  I was  loving,  I loved. 

3.  Future : amdbo,  I shall  love,  I will  love. 

II.  Three  Tenses  for  Completed  Action. 

1.  Perfect : amdvl,  I have  loved,  I loved. 

2.  Pluperfect : amdverom,  I had  loved. 

3.  Future  Perfect : amdvero,  I shall  have  loved.^ 

Note  1. — The  Latin  Perfect  sometimes  corresponds  to  our  Perfect  with 
have  {have  loved)^  and  is  called  the  Present  Perfect  or  Perfect  Definite ; and 
sometimes  to  our  Imperfect  or  Past  {loved) ^ and  is  called  the  Historical  Per^ 
feet  or  Perfect  Indefinite.^ 

Note  2. — The  Indicative  Mood  has  all  the  six  tenses ; the  Subjunctive  has 
the  Present,  Imperfect,  Perfect,  and  Pluperfect ; the  Imperative,  the  Present 
and  Future  only.^ 

\ 

198.  Principal  and  Historical.— Tenses  are  also  distin- 
guished  as — 

I.  Principal  or  Primary  Tenses: 

1.  Present:  amd,  I love. 

2.  Present  Perfect : amdm^  I have  loved.  ® 

3.  Future : amdM,  I shall  love. 

4.  Future  Perfect : amavero^  I shall  have  loved. 

II.  Historical  or  Secondary  Tenses: 

1.  Imperfect:  amabam^  I was  loving. 

2.  Historical  Perfect : amdv%  I loved.  ^ 

3.  Pluperfect : amdvemm^  I had  loved. 

1 Or,  I do  love.  The  English  did  may  also  be  used  in  translating  the  Imperfect  and 
Perfect : I did  love. 

2 Or,  I will  have  loved. 

® Thus  the  Latin  Perfect  combines  within  itself  the  force  and  use  of  two  distinct 
tenses— the  Perfect  proper.,  seen  in  the  Greek  Perfect,  and  the  Aorist.,  seen  in  the  Qreek 
Aorist:  amavT  = 7re(^)tA>7/ca,  I have  loved;  amavi  = e0tAi7ara,  I loved.  The  Historical 
Perfect  and  the  Imperfect  both  represent  the  action  as  pasU  but  the  former  regards 
it  simply  as  a historical  fact — I loved;  while  the  latter  regards  it  as  in  progress— I 
was  loving.  ^ 

4 The  nice  distinctions  of  tense  have  been  fully  developed  only  in  the  Indicative.  In 
the  Subjunctive  and  Imperative,  the  time  of  the  action  is  less  prominent  and  is  less  defi- 
nitely marked. 


VERBS, 


81 


199.  Numbers  Persons. — There  are  two  numbers, 

Singular  and  Plural/  and  three  persons,  Pirst,  Sec- 
ond, and  Third.  ^ 

Note. — The  various  verbal  forms  which  have  voice,  mood,  tense,  number, 
and  person,  make  up  the  finite  verb. 

200.  Among  verbal  forms  are  included  the  following 
verbal  nouns  and  adjectives : 

I.  The  Infinitive  is  a verbal  noun.^  It  is  sometimes  best  trans- 
lated by  the  English  Infinitive^  sometimes  by  the  verbal  noun  in  ing, 
and  sometimes  by  the  Indicative : 

Exlre  ex  urbe  volo,  / wish  to  go  out  of  the  city.  Gestio  scire  omnia,  1 long 
TO  KNOW  all  things,  Haec  scire  juvat,  to  know  these  things  affords  pleasure. 
Peccare  licet  nemini,  to  sin  is  lawful  for  no  one.  Vincere  3 scis,  you  know 
how  TO  CONQUER,  OT  you  Understand  conquering.^  Te  dicunt  esse^  sapien- 
tem, they  say  that  you  are^  wise.  Sentimus  calere^  Ignem,  we  perceive  that 
fire  IS  HOT.*^  See  also  Syntax,  533-539. 

II.  The  Gerund  gives  the  meaning  of  the  verb  in  the  form  of 
a verbal  noun  of  the  second  declension,  used  only  in  the  genitive^ 
dative^  accusative.,  and  ablative  singular.  It  corresponds  to  the  Eng- 

'Hshr  verbal^nounAn  ING : 

Amandl.,  of  loving.  Amandn  causa,  for  the  sake  of  loving.  Ars  viven- 
di., the  art  of  living.  Cupidus  te  audiendi.,  desirous  of  hearing  you.  Utilis 
bibendo.,  useful  for  drinking.  Ad  discendum  propensus,  inclined  to  learn,® 
or  TO  LEARNING.  Mens  discendo  alitur,  the  mind  is  nourished  by  learning. 
See  also  Syntax,  541-544. 

III.  The  Supine  gives^  the  meaning  of  the  verb  in  the  form  of  a 
verbal  noun  of  the  fourth  declension.  It  has  a form  in  um  and  a 
form  in  u : 

Amdtum.,  to  love,  for  loving.  Amdtu.,  to  be  loved,  for  loving,  in 


1 As  in  Nouns;  see  44. 

2 The  Infinitive  has  the  characteristics  both  of  verbs  and  of  nouns.  As  a verb,  it  gov- 
erns oblique  cases  and  takes  adverbial  modifiers ; as  a noun,  it  is  itself  governed.  In 
origin  it  is  a verbal  noun  in  the  Dative  or  Locative.  See  Jolly,  pp.  179-200. 

\ Observe  that  the  infinitive  vincere  may  be  translated  by  the  English  infinitive,  to 
conquer.^  or  by  the  verbal  noun,  conque/ring. 

^ Observe  that  the  infinitives  esse  and  calere  are  translated  by  the  indicative  are  and 
is  {is  hot) ; and  that  the  Acc.  te.,  the  subject  of  esse.,  is  translated  by  the  Nom.  you^  the 
subject  of  are;  and  that  the  Acc,  Ignem.,  the  subject  of  calere.,  is  translated  by  the  Nom. 
fire.,  the  subject  of  is. 

® Occasionally  the  Gerund,  especially  with  a preposition,  may  be  thus  translated  by 
the  English  infinitive. 


82 


VERBS. 


LOVING.  Auxilium  postuldtvm  venit,  he  came  to  ask  aid.  Difficile  dictii  est, 
it  is  dijjicult  to  tell.  See  Syntax,  545-547. 

Note. — The  Supine  in  um  is  an  Accusative  in  form,  while  the  Supine  in 
u may  he  either  a Dative  or  an  Ablative ; see  116. 

IV.  The  Participle  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  gives  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  in  the  form  of  an  adjective.^  It  is  sometimes  best 
translated  by  the  English  Participle  or  Infinitive^  and  sometimes 
by  a Clause: 

Amdns.,  loving.  Amdturus.^  about  to  love,  Amdtus.^  loved.  Aman- 
dus.^ DESERVING  TO  BE  LOVED.  Plato  scrihcns  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  while 
WRITING,  or  while  HE  WAS  WRITING.  Sol  oHlns  diem  conhcit,  the  sun  rising, 
or  WHEN  IT  rises,2  causcs  the  day.  Eediit  belli  casum  tentdturus.^  he  returned 
TO  TRY  (lit.,  about  to  try)  the  fortune  of  war.  In  amicis  eligendis.^^  in  select- 
ing friends.  See  Syntax,  548-550. 

Note. — A Latin  verb  may  have  four  participles ; two  in  the  Active,  the 
Present  and  the  Future,  amdns.,  amdturus  ; and  two  in  tne  Passive,  the  Per- 
fect and  the  Gerundive,^  amdtus.,  amandus. 

CONJUGATION. 

201.  Eegular  verbs  are  inflected,  or  conjugated,  in  four 
different  ways,  and  are  accordingly  divided  into  Four  Con- 
jugations,^ distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  stem  char- 
acteristics or  by  the  endings  of  the  Inflnitive,  as  follows : 


Characteristics. 

Infinitive  Endings. 

CONJ.  I. 

a 

a-re 

II. 

e 

e-re 

III. 

e 

e-re 

IV. 

i 

i-re 

202.  Principal  Parts. — The  Present  Indicative,  Pres- 
ent Infinitive,  Perfect  Indicative,  and  Supine  are  called 
from  their  importance  the  Principal  Parts  of  the  verb. 

1 Participles  are  verbs  in  force,  but  adjectives  in  form  and  inflection.  As  verbs,  they 
govern  oblique  cases ; as  adjectives,  they  agree  with  nouns. 

2 Ot  by  its  rising. 

^ Sometimes  called  the  Future  Passive  Participle.  In  agreement  with  a noun,  it 
is  often  best  translated  like  a gerund  governing  that  noun;  see  544. 

4 The  Four  Conjugations  are  only  varieties  of  one  general  system  of  inflection,  as  the 
differences  between  them  have  been  produced  in  the  main  by  the  union  of  different  final 
letters  in  the  various  stems  with  one  general  system  of  suffixes;  see  Comparative  Yiew 
of  Conjugations,  313-^16. 


VERBS. 


83 


Note  1. — In  the  inflection  of  verbs  it  is  found  convenient  to  recognize  fou) 
stems : 

1)  The  Verb-Stem.,  is  the  basis  of  the  entire  conjugation.  This  is 

often  called  simply  the  Stem. 

2)  Three  Special  Stems.,  the  Present  Stem,  the  Perfect  Stem,  and  the  Su- 
pine  Stem. 

Note  2. — The  Special  Stems  are  formed  from  the  Verb-Stem.,  unless  they 
are  identical  with  it.i 

203.  The  Entike  Conjugation  of  any  regular  verb 
may  be  readily  formed  from  the  Principal  Parts  by  means 
of  the  proper  endings.^ 

1.  Sum,  I am,  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  passive  voice  of  regular 
verbs.  Accordingly,  its  conjugation,  though  quite  irregular,  must  he  given 
at  the  outset.  The  Principal  Parts  are — 

Pees.  Indio.  Pres.  Infin.  Peef.  Indio. 

sum,  I am,  esse,  to  he,  ful,  I have  been. 

Note  1. — Sum  has  no  Supine. 

Note  2. — Two  independent  stems  or  roots  s are  used  in  the  conjugation  of 
this  verb,  viz. ; (1)  es,  seen  in  s-vm  (for  es-um)  and  in  es-se,  and  (2)  fu,  seen 
in  fu-l. 

1 For  the  treatment  of  Stems,  see  349-256.  In  many  verbs  the  stem  is  itself  de- 
rived from  a more  primitive  form  called  a Root.  For  the  distinction  between  roots  and 
stems,  and  for  the  manner  in  which  the  latter  are  formed  from  the  former,  see  313-318. 

2 In  the  Paradigms  of  regular  verbs,  the  endings  which  distinguish  the  various  forms 
are  separately  indicated,  and  should  be  carefully  noticed.  In  the  parts  derived  from  the 
present  stem  (333, 1.)  each  ending  contains  the  characteristic  vowel. 

3 The  forms  of  irregular  verbs  are  often  derived  from  different  roots.  Thus  in  Eng- 
lish, am,  was,  been;  go,  went,  gone.  Indeed,  the  identical  roots  used  in  the  conjuga- 
tion of  sum  are  in  constant  use  in  our  ordinary  speech.  The  root  es,  Greek  e?,  originally 
as,  is  seen  in  am  (for  as-mi),  art  (for  as-t),  are  (for  as-e)\  the  root  fu,  Greek  <^v,  origi- 
nally bhu,  is  seen  in  be  (for  bhe),  been.  The  close  relationship  existing  between  the 
Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and  English  is  seen  in  the  following  comparative  forms ; e<r-crt  is 
Homeric,  and  k-vri  Doric: 


Sanskrit. 

Greek. 

Latin. 

English. 

as-mi 

ei-fxi 

8-um 

a-m 

as-i 

ecr-(Tt 

es 

ar-t 

as-ti 

€o--Tt 

es-t 

is 

s-mas 

icr-iJiev  for  e(r-/ae? 

s-umus 

ar-e 

8-tha 

€(T-Te 

es-tis 

ar-e 

s-anti 

e-vTL  for  ecr-VTi 

s-unt 

ar-e 

Every  verbal  form  is  thus  made  by  appending  to  the  stem,  or  root,  a pronominal  ending 
meaning  I,  thou,  he,  etc.  Thus  mi,  seen  in  the  English  me,  means  I.  It  is  retained  in 
as-mi  and  ei-juu',  but  shortened  to  m in  s-u-m  and  a-m.  Ti,  meaning  he,  is  preserved 
in  as-ti  and  eo--Tt,  but  shortened  to  1r\n  es-t  and  lost  in  is.  The  stem  also  undergoes 
various  changes:  in  Sanskrit  it  is  as,  sometimes  shortened  to  s;  in  Greek  e?,  sometimes 
shortened  to  e ; in  Latin  es,  sometimes  shortened  to  s,  as  in  Sanskrit ; in  English  a,  ar, 
or  is. 


84 


VERBS. 


204.  Sum,  I am. — Stems,  es,  fu. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 


Pres.  Ind. 

Pres.  Inf. 

Perf.  Ind. 

Supine.  1 

sum, 

esse 

ful. 

— 

Indicative  Mood. 

SINGULAR. 

Present  Tense. 

PLURAL. 

sum,^ 

7 am, 

sumus. 

we  are.. 

es. 

thou  art^ 

estis. 

you  are., 

est, 

he  is  ; 

sunt, 

they  are. 

Imperfect. 

't 

eram, 

I was.^ 

eramus. 

we  were., 

eras. 

thou  wasty^ 

eratis. 

you  were.. 

erat, 

he  was  ; 

erant. 

they  were. 

Future. 

erd,^ 

I shall  be,^ 

erimus. 

we  shall  be.. 

eris. 

thou  wilt  be^ 

eritis. 

you  will  be, 

erit. 

he  v)ill  be  ; 

erunt. 

they  will  be. 

Perfect. 

fui. 

I have  beeri^ 

fuimus, 

we  have  been, 

fuisti, 

thou  hast  been^ 

fuistis. 

you  have  been. 

fuit. 

he  has  been  ; 

fuerunt, 

fuere. 

I they  have  been. 

fueram, 

fueras, 

fuerat, 

fuero, 

fueris, 

fuerit. 


Pluperfect. 

I had  heeriy  ^ fueramas,  ive  had  heen^ 

thou  hadst  been^  | fueratis,  you  had  heen^ 

he  had  been ; fueraat,  they  had  been. 

Future  Perfect. 


I shall  have  been^ 
thou  wilt  have  been^ 
he  will  have  been  ; 


fuerimus,  we  shall  have  been^ 
fueritis,  you  will  have  been^ 

fuerint,  they  will  have  been. 


^ The  Supine  is  wanting-. 

2 Su7n  is  for  esum^  eram  for  esam.  Whenever  s of  the  stem  es  comes  between  twc> 
vowels,  e is  dropped,  as  in  sum^  sunt,  or  s is  changed  to  r,  as  in  eram^  erb;  see  31,  1. 
The  pupil  will  observe  that  the  endings  which  are  added  to  the  roots  es  and  fu  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  type. 

3 Or  you  are,  and  in  the  Imperfect,  you  were ; thou  is  confined  mostly  to  solemn 
discourse. 

^ In  verbs,  final  o,  marked  o,  is  generally  long. 

6 Or,  Future,  I will  he;  Perfect,  I was ; see  197,  note  1. 


VERBS. 


85 


Subjunctive. 


sink, 

may  I be, ^ I 

slmiis. 

let  us  be. 

sis, 

mayst  thou  be,^  j 

sitis. 

be  ye,  may  you  be. 

sit,  ■ 

let  him  be,  may  he  be  ; 

1 sint. 

let  them  be' 

Imperfect. 

essem. 

I should  be,'^ 

essemus. 

we  should  be, 

esses. 

thou  wouldst  be. 

essetis. 

you  would  be, 

esset. 

he  would  be; 

essent. 

they  would  be. 

Perfect. 

fuerim. 

1 may  have  been^ 

fuerimus, 

we  may  have  been. 

fueris. 

thou  mayst  have  been. 

fueritis. 

you  may  have  been. 

fuerit. 

he  may  have  been  ; 

fuerint. 

they  may  have  been. 

Pluperfect. 

fuissem, 

I should  have  been. 

fuissemus. 

we  should  have  been. 

fuisses. 

thou  voouldst  have  been. 

fuissetis. 

you  toould  have  been 

fuisset. 

he  woidd  have  been  ; 

fuissent, 

they  would  have  been 

Imperative. 

Pres.  es. 

be  thou. 

1 este. 

be  ye. 

Fut.  esto, 

thou  shalt  be,^ 

1 estote. 

ye  shall  be. 

esto, 

he  shall  be  ; 

! sunto. 

they  shall  be. 

Infinitive.  • 

Participle. 

Pres.  esse. 

to  be. 

Perf.  fuisse,  to  have  been. 

Fut.  futliriis  esse,^  to  he  about 

to  be. 

Fut.  futurus,^  about  to  be. 

1.  In  the  Paradigm  all  the  forms  beginning  with  6 or  s are  from  the  stem 
es  ; all  others  from  the  stem  fu.^ 

2.  Eare  Forms  forem.,  fores.,  foret.,  forent^  fore.,  for  essem.,  esset., 

essent.,  futurus  esse  ; stem.,  sies.,  siet.,  sient.,  or  fuam.,  fuds.,  fuat.,  fuant.,  for  sim^ 
sis.,  sit.,  sint. 

1 On  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II.,  and  remember  that  it  is  often 
best  rendered  by  the  Indicative.  Thus,  sim  may  often  be  rendered  I am.,  and  fuerim.,  1 
hare  been. 

Or  be  thou.,  or  may  you  be. 

3 The  Fut.  may  also  be  rendered  like  the  Pres. , or  with  let : be  thou  ; let  him  be. 

* Futurus  is  declined  like  bonus.  So  in  the  Infinitive  : futurus.,  a,  um  esse. 

® Es  and  fu  are  roots  as  well  as  stemsY  As  the  basis  of  this  paradigm  they  are  prop- 
erly stem.%  but  as  they  are  not  derived  from  more  primitive  forms,  they  are  in  them- 
selves roots. 


86 


FIRST  CONJUGATION 


FIRST  COJSTJUGATION  : A VERBS. 

205.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Amo,  Hove. 

Verb  Stem  and  Present  Stem,  amci.^ 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Fees.  Ind.  Pees.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Supine. 

amd,  amare,  amavi,  amatum. 

Indicative  Mood. 


amd,^ 

amas, 

amat, 

amabam 

amabas, 

amabat, 

amabo, 

amabis, 

amabit, 

amavi, 

amavisti, 

amavit. 


SINGULAR. 

I love^ 
you  love^^ 
he  loves  ; 


Present  Tense. 

am  Ornus, 

amatis, 

amant. 


PLURAL. 

toe  love., 
you  love., 
they  love. 


Imperfect. 


I was  loving, 
you  were  loving, 
he  was  loving  ; 


amabamus, 

amabatis, 

amabant. 


we  were  loving, 
you  loere  loving, 
they  were  loving. 


I shall  love^^ 
you  will  love, 
he  loill  love  ; 


Future. 

amabimus, 

amabitis, 

amabunt. 


we  shall  love, 
you  loill  love, 
they  will  love. 


Perfect. 

I have  loved, ^ | amavimus,  we  have  loved, 

you  have  loved,  amavistis,  you  have  loved, 

he  has  loved  ; I amaverunt,  ere,  they  have  loved. 


Pluperfect. 


amaveram,  I had  loved, 
amaveras,  you  had  loved, 
amaverat,  he  had  loved; 

Future 

amaverO,  I shall  have  loved,^ 
amaveris,  you  will  have  loved, 
amaverit,  he  will  have  loved  ; 


amaveramus,  we  had  loved, 
amaveratis,  you  had  loved, 
amaverant,  they  had  loved. 
Perfect. 

amaverimus,  we  shall  have  loved, 
amaveritis,  you  will  have  loved^ 
amaverint,  they  will  have  loved. 


1 The  final  d of  the  stem  disappears  in  amb  for  ama-b,  amem,  ames^  etc.,  for  ama* 
im,  ama-ls,  etc.  Also  in  the  Pass,  in  amor  for  ama-or,  amer,  etc.,  for  ama-ir,  etc.; 
see  JJ3 ; 37.  Final  o,  marked  6,  is  generally  long. 

2 Or  7 am  loving.^  I do  love.  So  in  the  Imperfect,  I loved,  I was  loving^  I did  love 

3 Or  thou  lovest.  So  in  the  other  tenses,  thou  wast  loving.,  thou  wilt  love.  etc. 

4 Or  I will  love.  So  in  the  Future  Perfect,  1 shall  have  loved  or  I will  have  loved 
Ov  I loved;  see  197,  note  1. 


active  voice. 


Subjunctive. 


amem, 

ames, 

amet, 


SINGULAR. 

may  I love^ 
may  you  love^ 
let  him  love  ; 


Present. 

amemus, 

ametis, 

ament. 


PLURAL. 

let  us  love^ 
may  you  love^ 
let  them  love. 


amarem, 

amares, 

amaret, 


Imperfect. 


I should  love^ 
you  would  love^ 
he  tvould  love  ; 


amaremus,  we  should  love., 
amaretis,  you  would  love., 

amarent,  they  would  love. 


Perfect. 


amaverim,  I may  have  loved^ 
amaveris,  you  may  have  loved., 

amaverit,  he  may  have  loved  ; 


amaverimus,  we  may  have  loved, 
amaveritis,  you  may  have  loved, 
amaverint,  they  may  have  loved. 


Pluperfect. 


amavissem,  I should  have  loved, 
amavisses,  you  would  have  loved, 
amavisset,  he  would  have  loved  ; 


dim2i\\^HeTi\r\H,ioeshouldhaveloved, 
amavissetis,  you  would  have  loved, 
amavissent,  they  would  have  loved. 


Imperative. 


Pres,  am  a,  love  thou  ; 

Put.  amatd,  thou  shall  love, 
amato,  he  shall  love  ; 


I amate, 

I amatote, 
• 1 amanti. 


love  ye. 
ye  shall  love, 
they  shall  love. 


Infinitive. 

Pres,  amare,  to  love. 

Perf.  amavisse,  to  have  loved. 

Put.  amaturus  ® esse,  to  he  about 
to  love. 


Participle. 

Pres,  amans,^  loving. 

Put.  amaturus,^  about  to  love. 


Gerund.  *- 


Qen. 

Bat. 

Acc. 

Ahl. 


amandi, 

amando, 

amandum, 

amando. 


of  loving, 
for  loving, 
loving, 
by  loving. 


Supine. 


Acc.  amatum,  to  love, 

Abl.  amatu,  to  love,  be  loved. 


1 On  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II. 

2 Often  best  rendered  I have  loved.  So  in  the  Pluperfect,  I had  loved;  see  196,  II 
® Decline  like  bonus.,  148. 

^ For  declension,  see  167. 


88 


FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


. FIRST  CONJUGATION:  A VERBS. 
206.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Amor,  I am  loved. 

Verb  Stem  and  Present  Stem,  ama. 


Pres.  Ind. 
amor, 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Inf. 


Indicative  Mood. 


Perf.  Ind. 

amat^LS  sunic 


Present  Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

amor 

amaris,  or  re 

amatar 


amabar 

amabaris,  or  re 
amabatur 


lam  loved. 


Imperfect. 
I was  loved. 


plural. 

amamur 

amamiul 

amantur 


amabamur 

amabamini 

amabantur 


amabor 

amaberis, 

amabitur 


Future. 

J shall  or  will  he  loved 


amabimur 

amabimini 

amabuntur 


Perfect. 

I have  been  loved  or  I teas  loved. 


amatus  sum  ^ 

amati  sumus 

amatus  es 

amati  estis 

amatus  est 

amati  sunt 

Pluperfect. 

/ had  been  loved. 

amatus  eram^ 

amati  eramus 

amatus  eras 

amati  eratis 

amatus  erat 

amati  erant 

Future  Perfect. 

I shall  or  will  have  been  loved. 

amatus  erO  ^ 

amati  erimus 

amatus  eris 

amati  eritis 

amatus  erit 

amati  erunt 

* Fui,  fuisti.,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  sum,  es,  etc. : amdtus  fui  for  amdtut 
»um.  So  fueram,  fueras,  etc.,  for  eram,  etc. : also  fuero,  etc.,  for  erb,  etc. 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 


89 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 

May  I he  loved^  let  him  he  loved} 


SINGULAR. 

amer 

ameris,  or  re 

ametur 


PLURAL. 

amemur 

amemini 

amentur 


Imperfect. 

I should  he  loved^  he  would  he  loved} 


amarer 

amareris,  or  re 
amaretur 


amaremur 

amaremini 

amarentur 


Perfect. 


I may  have  been  loved^  or  I have  been  loved} 


amatus  sim’^ 
amatus  sis 
amatus  sit 


amatl  simus 
amati  sitis 
amati  sint 


Pluperfect. 

I should  have  been  loved ^ he  would  have  been  loved} 


amatus  essem  ^ 
amatus  esses 
amatus  esset 


amati  essemus 
amati  essetis 
amati  essent 


Imperative. 

Fres,  amare,  he  thou  loved ; \ 

Fut.  amator,  thou  shalt  he  loved^  I 
amator,  he  shall  he  loved  ; | 


amamini,  he  ye  loved. 
amantor,  they  shall  he  loved. 


Infinitive. 

Pres,  amari,  to  he  loved. 

Perf.  amatus  esse,*  to  have  been 
loved. 

Fut  amatum  Iri,  to  he  about  to 
he  loved. 


Participle. 

Perf.  amatus,  having  been  lovea. 

, Ge^\^  amandus,  to  he  loved., 
sei'ving  to  he  loved. 


^ But  on  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II. 

^ Fuerim  .^fueris.,  etc.,  are  sometimes  useu  for  siwi,  etc. — So 

etc.,  for  essem.,  esses.,  etc. : rarely  fuisse  for  esse. 

^ Ger.  — Gerundive ; see  200,  IV.,  note. 


90 


JSJEJOOJ^JD  CONJUGATION, 


SECOND  CONJUGATION:  E VERBS. 
207.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Moneo,  I ad/one. 

Verb  Stem,  mon,  moni ; Present  Stem,  mon^. 


Pees.  Ind. 
moned. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Supine. 

monere,  monui,  monitum. 


Indicative  Mood. 
Present  Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

moned 

mones 

monet 


I advise. 


PLURAL. 

monemus 

monetis 

moneut 


Imperfect. 

1 was  advising^  or  I advised. 


monel>am 

monel>as 

monel>at 


mone1>amus 

moneljatis 

mon€i>aut 


monel>6 

monel>is 

monel>it 


Euture. 

I shall  or  will  advise. 


mone1>imus 

moneWtis 

monel>iint 


monui 

monuisti 

monuit 


Perfect. 

I have  advised^  or  I advised. 

monuimus 
monuistis 

monuerunt,  or  €re 


monueram 

monueras 

monuerat 


Pluperfect. 

I had  advised. 

monueramus 

monueratis 

monuerant 


Future  Perfect. 


monuerO 

monueris 

monuerit 


I shall  or  will  have  advised. 

monuertmus 

monueritis 

monuerint 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 

CARL  HINRICHS  * 

Subjunctive. 

Present. 

May  I advise^  let  him  advise} 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


91 


moneam 

moneas 

moneat 


moneamas 

moneatis 

moneant 


Imperfect. 

I should  advise.^  he  would  advise. 


monereiims 
moneretis 
monerent 

Perfect. 

I may  have  advised^  or  I have  advised} 

monuerimus 
monueritis 
monuerint 

Pluperfect. 

I should  have  advised.,  he  would  have  advised!^ 
monuissem  j monuissemus 

monuisses  monuissetis 

monuisset  I monuissent 

Imperative. 


monerem 

moneres 

moneret 


monuerim 

monueris 

monuerit 


Tres,  mone,  advise  thou  ; 

Tut.  monete,  thou  shall  advise., 
monete,  he  shall  advise  ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres,  monere,  to  advise. 

Perf,  monuisse,  to  have  advised. 
P'ut.  moniturus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  advise. 

Gerund. 

Gen.  monendi,  of  advising.. 
Dot.  monende,  for  advising., 
.Acc.  monendum,  advising., 

Abl.  monende,  by  advising. 


I monete,  advise  ye. 

I monetete,  ye  shall  advise., 

1 monente,  they  shall  advise. 

Participle. 

Pres,  monens,  advising. 

Fut.  moniturus,  about  to  advise 

Supine. 


Acc.  monitum,  to  advise., 

Abl.  monitu,  to  advise.,  be  advised. 


1 Bu<-  on  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II. 

2 The  Pluperfect,  like  the  Perfect,  is  often  rendered  by  the  Indicative  : I had  ad' 
vised.,  you  had  advised.,  etc. 


93 


SECOND  CONJUGATION 


SECOND  CONJUGATION:  E VERBS. 
208.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Moneor,  lam  advised. 

V ERB  Stem,  moni  ; Present  Stem,  monl. 


Pres.  Ind. 
moneor, 


SINGULAR. 

moneor 

moneris,  or  re 
monetur 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Inf. 
moneri. 

Indicative  Mood. 
Present  Tense. 

I am  advised. 


Perf.  Ind. 
monitus  sum. 


PLURAL. 

monemur 

monemiul 

moneutur 


Imperfect. 
I was  < 


monel>ar  I monebamur 

monebaris,  or  re  I monebamini 

monebatur  | monebantur 

Future. 

I shall  or  will  he  advised. 

monSbor  monebimur 

moneberis,  or  re  monebimini 

monebitur  monebuntur 

Perfect. 

I have  been  advised.,  I was  advised. 
monitus  sum  ^ moniti  sumus 

monitus  es  moniti  estis 

monitus  est  moniti  sunt 


Pluperfect. 

I had  been  advised. 


monitus  eram^ 
monitus  eras 
monitus  erat 


moniti  eramus 
moniti  eratis 
moniti  erant 


Future  Perfect. 

I shall  or  will  have  been  advised. 


monitus  ero  ^ 
monitus  eris 
monitus  erit 


moniti  erimus 
moniti  eritis 
moniti  erunt 


1 See  206,  foot-notes. 


PASSIVE  VOICE, 


93 


Subjunctive. 


Present. 


May  I he  advised^  let  him  he  advised. 


SINGULAR. 

monear 

monearis,  or  re 
moneatar 


PLURAL. 

moneamur 

moneamini 

moneantur 


Imperfect. 


/ should  he  advised^  he  would  he  advised. 


monerer 
monSr^ris,  or  re 
moneretur 


moneremur 

moneremini 

monerentur 


Perfect. 


I may  have  been  advised^  or  I have  been  advised. 


monitus  sim^ 
monitus  sis 
monitus  sit 


monitl  slmus 
moniti  sltis 
monitl  sint 


Pluperfect. 


I should  have  been  advised^  he  would  have  been  advised,^ 


monitus  essem  ‘ 
monitus  esses 
monitus  esset 


monitl  essemus 
moniti  essetis 
moniti  essent. 


Pres,  monere,  be  thou  advised ; 

Fut.  monetor,  thou  shalt  be  ad- 
vised., 

monetor,  he  shall  be  advised  ; 

Infinitive. 

Vres.  moneri,  to  be  advised, 

Perf.  monitus  esse,^  to  have  been 
advised. 

Fut.  monitum  iri,  to  be  about  to 
he  advised. 


monemini,  be  ye  advised. 
monentor,  they  shall  be  advised^ 

Participle. 

Perf.  monitus,  advised- 

Ger.  monend-us,  to  be  advised.,  de- 
sefi'ving  to  be  advised. 


Imperative. 


1 See  206,  foot-notes. 

2 Or  I had  been  advised^  you  had  been  advised,  eta 


94 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION:  CONSONANT  VERBS. 
209.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Rego,  I rule. 

Verb  Stem,  reg ; Present  Stem,  rege.^ 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

rego,  regere,  rexi,^ 

Indicative  Mood. 
Present  Tense. 

I rule. 


Sfpine. 

rectum.^ 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

rego 

1 regimus 

regis 

1 regitis 

regit 

1 regunt 

Imperfect. 

/ waB  ruling.,  or  I ruled. 

regel>am 

regebamus 

regel>as 

regebatis 

regel>at 

regebant 

Future. 

I shall  or  will  rule. 

regam 

regemus 

reg€s 

regetis 

reget 

regent 

Perfect. 

I have  ruledy  or  I ruled. 

rexi 

reximus 

rexisti 

rexistis 

rexit 

rexerunt,  or 

Pluperfect. 

I had  ruled. 

rgxeram 

rexeramus 

rexeras 

rexeratis 

rexerat 

rexerant 

Future 

Perfect. 

I shall  or  loill  have  ruled. 

rexerO 

rexerimus 

rexeris 

rexeritis 

rexerit 

rexerint 

1 The  characteristic  is  a variable  vowel— 0,  -m,  e,  i:  yq>^5.  reg?^nt,  reg<?re,  regfs;  Cur 
t^us  calls  it  the  thematic  'cowel;  see  Curtius,  I.,  p.  199,  but  on  0,  see  also  Meyer,  411. 

3 See  5554;  30,  33,  1. 


ACTIVE  VOICE, 


95 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 

May  I ride ^ let  him  rule}  ^ 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

regain 

regamus 

regas 

regatis' 

regat 

regant 

Imperfect. 

I should  rule.,  he  icould  rule. 

regerem 

regeremus 

regeres 

regerOtis 

regeret 

regerent 

Perfect. 

I may  have  ruled^  or  I have  ruled. 


rgxerim 

rexeris 

rSxerit 


rexerimus 

rexeritis 

rexerint 


Pluperfect. 

/ should  have  ruled,  he  would  have  rided. 


rgxissem 

rexisses 

rexisset 


rexissemus 

rexissetis 

rexissent 


Pres,  rege,  rule  thou  ; 

Fut.  regito,  thou  shall  rule.^ 
regito,  he  shall  rule  ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres,  regere,  to  rule. 

Perf.  rexisse,  to  have  ruled. 

Fut.  rectiirns  esse,  to  he  about 
to  rule. 

Gerund. 

Gen.  regen Oi,  of  ruling.^ 

Eat.  regend.o,  for  ruling., 

Acc.  regend.um,  ruling^ 

Ahl.  regend-O,  hy  ruling. 


Imperative. 

1 regite, 


rule  ye. 

regitote,  ye  shall  rule., 
regnntO,  they  shall  rule. 

Participle. 

Pres.  regOns,  ruling. 

Fut.  rectiirns,  about  to  rule 

Supine. 


Acc.  rectnm,  to  rule., 

Abl.  rectn,  to  rule.,  be  ruled. 


I But  on  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II. 


96 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION:  CONSONANT  VERBS. 
210.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Regor, /am  n«W. 

Verb  Stem,  reg ; Present  Stem,  rege} 


./ 


Pres.  Ind. 
regor,  : f' 


v>  ' J-' 


X' 


SINGULAR. 

regor 

regeris,  or  re 

regitur 


regSl>ar 

regel>aris,  or  re 

reg€l>atur 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Inf. 

Indicative  Mood. 
Present  Tense. 
lam  ruled. 


Perf.  Ind. 
rectus^  sum» 


Imperfect. 
I was  .I'uXed, 


PLURAL. 

regimur 

regimini 

reguntur 


regebamur 

regebamini 

regebantur 


Future. 

I shall  or  will  be  ruled. 


regar 

regeris,  or  re 
reg€tur 


regemur 

regamini 

regentur 


Perfect. 

I have  been  ruled.,  or  I was  ruled. 


rectus  sum^ 
rectbs  es 
rictus  est 


rgctus  eram® 
rectus  eras 
rgctus  erat 


Pluperfect. 

I had  been  ruled. 


recti  sumus 
recti  estis 
recti  sunt 


recti  eramus 
recti  eratis 
recti  eraut 


Future  Perfect. 

/ shall  or  will  have  been  ruled. 


rectus  erO* 
rectus  eris 
rictus  erit 


recti  erimus 
recti  eritis 
recti  eruut 


See  809,  foot-notes. 


2 See  806,  foot-notes, 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 


97 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 

May  I he  ruled^  let  him  he  ruled. 


SINGULAR. 

regal* 

regaris,  or  re 
regatar 


PLURAL. 

regamar 

regamini 

regaatar 


Imperfect. 

I shoidd  he  ruled^  he  would  he  ruled. 


regerer 

regereris,  or  re 
regeretar 


regeremur 

regeremini 

regerentar 


Perfect. 

I may  have  been  ruled.,  or  I have  been  ruled. 


rSctas  sim  ^ 
rectas  sis 
rectas  sit 


recti  sImas 
recti  sitis 
recti  sint 


Pluperfect. 

I should  have  been  ruled,  he  loould  have  been  ruled. 
rectas  essem  ^ I recti  essemas 


rectas  esses 
rectas  esset 


I 


recti  essetis 
recti  essent 


Imperative. 

Pres,  regere,  he  thou  ruled;  | regimini,  he  ye  ruled. 

Fut.  regitor,  thou  shalt  he  ruled,  I 

regitor,  he  shall  be  ruled ; \ regantor,  they  shall  be  ruled. 


Infinitive. 

Pres,  regl,  to  he  ruled. 

Perf.  lectas  esse,^  to  have  been 
ruled. 

Fut.  rectam  iri,  to  he  about  to  he 
ruled. 


Participle. 

Perf.  rectas,  ruled. 

Ger.  regendas,  to  he  ruled,  de 
serving  to  he  ruled. 


8 


^ See  306,  foot-notes. 


98 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION  : I VERBS. 

211.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Audio, 

Verb  Stem  and  Present  Stem,  audi. 

PEIN  OIPAL  PAETS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Stjpine. 

audio,  audire,  audivi,  audltum. 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 

I hear, 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

audio  audimus 

audis  auditis 

audit  audiuiit 

Imperfect. 

I vm8  hearing,,  or  I heard, 

audiOl>am  audieOamus 

audiebas  audiebatis 

audiebat  audiebant 

Future. 

I shall  or  ivill  hear, 

audiam  audiemus 

audies  audietis 

audiet  audient 

Perfect. 

I have  heard,,  or  / heard. 
audivi  audivimus 

audivisti  audivistis 

audivit  audiverunt,  or  Ore 

Pluperfect. 

I had  heard, 

audiveram  audiveramus 

audiveras  audiveratis 

audiverat  audiverant 

Future  Perfect. 

I shall  or  will  have  heard. 
audIverO  audiverimus 

audiveris  audiveritis 

audiverit  audiverint 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 


99 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 

May  I hear ^ let  him  hear} 


SINGULAR. 

audiam 

audias 

audiat 


audirem 

audires 

audiret 


PLURAL. 

audiamus 

audiatis 

audiant 


Imperfect. 


I should  hear^  he  would  hear. 

audiremus 
audiretis 

audirent 

Perfect. 


I may  have  heard.,  or  I have  heard. 


audiverim 

audiveris 

audiverit 


audiverimus 

audiveritis 

audiverint 


Pluperfect. 

1 should  have  heard,  he  would  have  heard. 


audivissem 

audivisses 

audivisset 


Fres.  audi,  hear  thou  ; 

Fut.  audito,  thou  shalt  hear, 
audito,  he  shall  hear  ; 

Infinitive. 

Fres.  audire,  to  hear. 

Perf.  audivisse,  to  have  heard. 

Fut.  auditurus  esse,  to  he  about 
to  hear. 

Gerund. 

Gen.  audieucli,  of  hearing. 

Fat.  audieuOO,  for  hearing, 

Ace.  audiendum,  hearing, 

Ahl.  audiendo,  by  hearing. 


Imperative. 

I audite. 


audivissemus 

audivissetis 

audivissent 


hear  ye. 
ye  shall  hear. 


auditote, 
audiunto,  they  shall  hear. 

Participle. 

Pres,  audiens,  hearing. 

Fut.  auditurus,  about  to  hear. 

Supine. 


Ace.  auditum,  to  hear, 

Ahl.  auditu,  to  hear,  be  heard. 


1 But  on  the  translation  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II, 


100  FOURTH  COmUOATlON. 


FOUKTH  CONJUGATION;  I VERBS. 
212.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Audior, /am /ward. 

Verb  Stem  and  Present  Stem,  audi. 


Pres.  Ind. 
audior, 


SINGULAR. 

audior 

audiris,  or  re 
auditur 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pees.  Inf. 
audiri, 

Indicative  Mood. 
Present  Tense. 
lam  heard. 


Perf.  Ind. 
auditus  sunv 


Imperfect. 
I was  heard. 


audiel>ar 
audiebaris,  or  re 
audiebatur 


PLURAL. 

audimur 

audimini 

audiuntur 


audiebamur 

audiebamini 

audiebantur 


audiar 

audieris,  or  re 

audietur 


Future. 

I shall  or  will  he  heard, 

audiemur 
audiemini 
audientur 


auditus 

auditus 

auditus 


Perfect. 

I have  been  heard,^  or  1 was  heard, 
sum  ^ auditi 

es  auditi 

est  audit! 


sumus 

estis 

sunt 


Pluperfect. 

/ had  been  heard, 

auditus  eram^ 
auditus  eras 
auditus  erat 


auditi  eramus 
auditi  eratis 
auditi  erant 


auditus 

auditus 

auditus 


Future  Perfect. 

I shall  or  will  have  been  heard. 


ero ' 
eris 
erit 


auditi 

auditi 

auditi 


erimus 

eritis 

erunt 


1 See  306,  foot-notes. 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 


101 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 


May  I be  heard^  let  him  he  heard. 


SINGULAR. 

audiar 

audiaris,  or  re 

audiUtur 


PLURAL. 

audiamur 

audiamiui 

audiantur 


Imperfect. 


I should  be  heard^  he  would  he  heard. 


audirer 

audireris,  or  re 

audiretur 


audiremur 

audiremini 

audirentur 


Perfect. 

/ may  have  been  heard^  or  I have  been  heard. 


auditus  sim^ 
auditus  sis 
auditus  sit 


audit!  simus 
auditi  sitis 
auditi  sint 


Pluperfect. 


I should  have  been  heard^  he  would  have  been  heard, 


auditus  essem  ^ 
auditus  esses 
auditus  esset 


auditi  essemus 
auditi  essetis 
auditi  essent 


Imperative. 

Fres.  audire,  be  thou  heard ; | audimini,  be  ye  heard. 

Fut.  auditor,  thou  shalt  be  heard.,  I 

auditor,  he  shall  be  heard ; I audiuntor,  they  shall  be  heard. 


Infinitive. 

Pres,  audiri,  to  be  heard. 

Perf.  auditus  esse,^  to  have  been 
heard. 

Fut.  auditum  Iri,  to  be  about  to 
be  heard. 


Participle. 

Perf.  auditus,  heard. 

Ger.  audiendus,  to  be  heard.,  de- 
serving to  be  heard. 


1 See  306,  foot-notes. 


102 


VERBS. 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIONS. 
213.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 


PRESENT  SYSTEM.* 


Indicatiye  Mood. 

-6 

Present. 

am 

-as. 

-at ; 

-amus, 

-atis. 

-ant. 

mon 

-eo, 

-es. 

-et ; 

-emus. 

-etis. 

-ent. 

reg 

-6 

-is. 

-it ; 

-imus, 

-itis. 

-unt. 

aud 

-io, 

-is. 

-it; 

-in:  us, 

-itis. 

-iunt. 

Imperfect. 

am 

-abam, 

-abas. 

-abat ; 

-abamus. 

-abatis. 

-abant. 

mon 

-ebam, 

-ebas. 

-ebat ; 

-ebamus. 

-ebatis. 

-ebant. 

reg 

-ebam, 

-ebas. 

-ebat ; 

-ebamus. 

-ebatis. 

-ebant. 

aud 

-iebam, 

, -iebas, 

-iebat ; 

-iebamus. 

-iebatis, 

-i  ebant 

Future. 

am 

-abo, 

-ebo, 

-abis. 

-abit ; 

-abimus. 

-abitis. 

-abunt. 

mon 

-ebis. 

-ebit ; 

-ebimus. 

-ebitis. 

-6bunt. 

reg 

-am, 

-es. 

-et ; 

-emus. 

-etis. 

-ent. 

aud 

-iam, 

-ies. 

-iet ; 

-iemus. 

-ietis. 

-ient. 

SUBJUNCTIYE. 

Present. 

am 

-em, 

-es. 

-et ; 

-emus. 

-etis, 

-eatis, 

-ent. 

mon 

-earn, 

-eas. 

-eat ; 

-eamus. 

-eant. 

reg 

-am, 

-as. 

-at ; 

-amus. 

-atis. 

-ant. 

aud 

-iam, 

-ias. 

-iat ; 

-iamus. 

-iatis, 

-iant. 

Imperfect. 

am 

-arem, 

-ares. 

-aret ; 

-aremus. 

-aretis. 

-arent. 

mon 

-erem. 

-eres. 

-eret ; 

-eremus. 

-eretis. 

-erent. 

reg 

-erem. 

-eres. 

-eret ; 

-eremus. 

-eretis. 

-erent. 

aud 

-Irem, 

-ires. 

-iret ; 

-iremus. 

-iretis. 

-irent. 

Present. 

Imperatiye. 

Future. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL.* 

am 

-a. 

-ate ; 

-ato. 

-ato ; 

-atote. 

-anto. 

mon 

-e, 

-ete ; 

-eto. 

-eto ; 

-etote. 

-ento. 

reg 

-e, 

-ite ; 

-ito. 

-ito ; 

-itote. 

-unto. 

aud 

-b 

-ite ; 

-ito, 

-ito ; 

-itote. 

-iunto 

Pres.  Infinitiye. 

Pres. 

Participle. 

Gerund. 

am 

-are ; 

-ans ; 

-andi. 

mon 

-ere ; 

-ens ; 

-endi. 

reg 

-ere; 

-ens ; 

-endi. 

aud 

-ire ; 

-iens ; 

-iendi. 

Note. — Yerbs  in  io  of  Conj.  III.  have  certain  endings  of  Conj.  lY. ; see  217. 


For  the  Present  System^  see  222, 1. 


VERBS, 


103 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIONS, 


214.  PASSIVE  A^OICE.^ 


PRESENT  SYSTEM. 

Indicative  Mood. 


am 

-or, 

-dris 

or  are,^ 

Present. 
-atur ; 

-ainur. 

-amini. 

-antur. 

mon 

-eor, 

-eris 

or  ere. 

-etur ; 

-emur. 

-emini, 

-entur. 

reg 

-or, 

-eris 

or  ere. 

-itur  ; 

-imur, 

-imini, 

-untur. 

aud 

-ior, 

-Iris 

or  Ire, 

-Itur  ; 

-Imur, 

-imini. 

-iuntur. 

am 

-abar, 

-abaris 

or  abare. 

Imperfect. 
-abatur ; 

-abamur. 

-abamini. 

-abantur. 

mon 

-ebar, 

-ebaris 

or  ebare. 

-ebatur ; 

-ebamur. 

-ebamini. 

-ebantur. 

reg 

-ebar, 

-ebaris 

or  ebare. 

-ebatur  ; 

-ebamur. 

-ebamini. 

-ebantur. 

aud 

-iebar, 

-iebaris  or  iebare. 

-iebatur ; 

-iebamur. 

-iebamini. 

-iebantur 

am 

-abor, 

-aberis 

or  abere. 

Future. 
-abitur ; 

-abimur. 

-abimini, 

-abuntur. 

mon 

-ebor, 

-eberis 

or  ebere. 

-ebitur ; 

-ebimur, 

-ebimini. 

-ebuntur. 

reg 

-ar, 

-eris 

or  ere. 

-etur ; 

-emur. 

-emini. 

-entur. 

aud 

-iar, 

-ieris 

or  iere. 

-ietui* ; 

-iemur. 

-iemini. 

-ientur. 

am 

-er,  ' 

-eris 

Subjunctive. 

Present. 

or  ere,  -etur ; -emur. 

-emini. 

-entur. 

moD 

-ear, 

-earis 

or  eare. 

-eatur ; 

-eamur. 

-eamiM, 

-eantur 

reg 

-ar. 

-aris 

or  are, 

-atur ; 

-amur. 

-amini. 

-antur. 

aud 

-iar. 

-iaris 

or  iare. 

-iatur ; 

-iamur. 

-iamini. 

-iantur. 

am 

-arer, 

-areris 

or  arere. 

Imperfect. 
-aretur ; 

-aremur. 

-aremini. 

-arentur. 

mon 

-erer. 

-ereris 

or  erere. 

-eretur ; 

-eremur. 

-eremini. 

-erentur. 

reg 

-erer. 

-ereris 

or  erere. 

-eretur ; 

-eremur. 

-eremini, 

-erentur. 

aud 

-Irer, 

-Ireris 

or  Ire  re. 

-Iretur ; 

-Iremur, 

-iremini. 

-irentur, 

Present.  IMPERATIVE. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL.  SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

am 

-are. 

-amini 

-ator. 

-ator  ; 

— 

-antor. 

mon 

-ere. 

-emini ; 

) 

-etor. 

-etor ; 

— 

-entor. 

reg 

-ere. 

-imini ; 

-itor. 

-itor ; 

— 

-untor. 

aud 

-Ire, 

-IminI ; 

-itor, 

-itor ; 

— 

-iuntor. 

Pres.  Infinitive. 

am  -arl ; 

mon  -erl ; 

reg  -I ; 

aud  -Irl ; 


Gerundive. 

-andus. 

-endus. 

-endus. 

-iendus. 


1 In  these  and  the  following  endings  re  takes  the  place  of  W«.*  dris  or  «re,  dhdris  or 
abdre.  Re  is  formed  from  ria  by  dropping  final  s and  then  changing  final  i to  e;  see 
36,  5 ; 34, 1,  note  ; also  337. 


104 


VERBS. 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OP  CONJUGATIONS. 
215.  ACTIVE  VOICE.  • 


PERFECT  SYSTEM.! 

Indicative  Mood. 


amav  1 

1 

Perfect. 

monu 

rex 

audiv  J 

I- 1,  -isti, 

-it ; -imus. 

-istis. 

-grunt,  gre.* 

arnSv  1 

r . 

Pluperfect. 

monu  1 
rex  1 

audiv  J 

^ -eram,  -eras, 

-erat ; -eramus. 

-eratis. 

-erant. 

amav  1 

1 

Future  Perfect. 

monu  1 
rex  1 

'd 

y -ero,  -eris, 

-erit ; -erimus. 

-eritis. 

-erint. 

audiv  J 

1 

Subjunctive. 

amav  1 

Perfect. 

monu  1 
rex  1 

audiv  J 

y -erim,  -eris, 

-erit ; -erimus. 

-eritis. 

-erint. 

amav  1 

1 

Pluperfect. 

monu  I 
rex  1 

y -issem,  -issSs, 

, -isset ; -issemus. 

-issetis. 

-issent. 

audiv  J 

1 

1 

amav  1 

monu 

rex 

audiv  j 

y -i&se. 

Perfect  Infinitive. 

SUPINE  SYSTEM. 

1 

Fut.  Infinitive. 

Fut.  Participle. 

Supine. 

am  at 
monit 
rect 
audit  J 

|-  -urus  esse. 

-urus. 

-um. 

» -a. 

! For  the  Perfect  System,  see  333,  II.;  for  the  Supine  System,  333,  III. 

From  the  comparative  view  presented  in  313-316,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  foui 
conjugations  differ  from  each  other  only  in  the  formation  of  the  Principal  Parts  and  In 
the  endings  of  the  Present  System.  See  also  301,  foot-note. 


VERBS, 


106 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIOISTS. 


216.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 


SUPINE  SYSTEM. 

Indicative  Mood. 


amat  ] 

1 

Perfect. 

monit 
rect 
audit  J 

\ -us  sum, 

-us  es. 

-us  est ; -i  ^ sumus. 

-i  estis,  -1  sunt. 

amat  1 

1 

Pluperfect. 

monit 
rect 
audit  J 

j-  -us  eram, 

-us  eras. 

-us  erat ; -i  eramus. 

-i  eratis,  -i  erant. 

amat  1 

1 

Future  Perfect. 

monit  1 
rect 

^ -us  ero, 

-us  eris. 

-us  erit ; -i  erimus, 

-i  eritis,  -i  erunt. 

audit  J 

1 

Subjunctive. 

amat  1 

Perfect. 

monit  1 
rgct 
audit  J 

^ -us  sim, 

-us  sis. 

-us  sit ; -i  slmus. 

sitis,  -i  sint. 

amat  1 

1 

Pluperfect. 

monit  I 
r6ct 

k -us  essem, 

-us  essgs 

, -us  esset ; -i  essemus. 

-i  essetis,  -i  esseut 

audit  J 

1 

Infinitive. 

amat  1 

1 Perfect. 

Future. 

monit 
rect 
audit  J 

1 

j-  -us  esse. 

-um  111. 

Perfect  Participle. 


amat 
monit 
rect 
audit  J 


-us. 


In  the  plural,  -us  becomes  -I : amdt-l  sumus^  etc. 


106 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


217.  A few  verbs  of  the  Third  Conjugation  form  the  Present 
Indicative  in  i6,  ior,  like  verbs  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation.  They 
are  inflected  with  the  endings  of  the  Fourth  wherever  those  end 
ings  have  two  successive  vowels.  These  verbs  are — 

1.  Ca]pib^  to  take ; cv/pw^  to  desire ; to  make  ; fodib^  to  dig ; fugw^ 

to  flee ; to  throw  to  bear;  quatib.^  to  shake;  rapw,^  to  seize; 

sapib^  to  be  wise,  with  their  compounds. 

2.  The  compounds  of  the  obsolete  verbs,  lacib.^  to  entice,  and  specw.^  to 
look ; allicib^  Uicib.,  illicib.^  pellicib.,  etc. ; aspicib.^  conspicib.^  etc. 

3.  The  Deponent  Verbs : gradior.,  to  go ; morior.,  to  die ; patior.,  to  suffer; 
see  JJ31. 


218.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Capio, 

Verb  Stem,  cap ; Present  Stem,  cape?^ 
PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 


Pres.  Ind. 


capio, 


Pres.  Inf. 
capere, 


Perf.  Ind. 


cepi, 


Supine, 

captum. 


Indicative  Mood. 
Present  Tense. 


PLURAL. 

capimus,  capitis,  capiunt. 


Imperfect. 


capiebamus,  -iebatis,  -iebant 


Future. 


capiam,  -ies,  -iet ; 


1 capiemus,  -ietis,  -ient. 
Perfect. 


cepero,  -eris,  -erit ; 


cepI,  -isti,  -it ; 


ceperam,  -eras,  -erat ; 


I cepimus,  -istis,  -erunt,  or  ere 

Pluperfect. 

I ceperamus,  -eratis,  -erant. 

Future  Perfect. 

( ceperimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 


caperem,  -eres,  -eret ; 


ceperim,  -eris,  -erit ; 


cepissem,  -isses,  -isset ; 


capiam,  -ias,  -iat ; 


I capiamus,  -iatis,  -iant. 

Imperfect. 

I caperemus,  -eretis,  -erent. 

Perfect. 

I ceperimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 

Pluperfect. 

I cepissemus,  -issetis,  -issent. 


1 Specib  occurs,  but  is  exceedingly  rare. 
* With  variable  vowel— e,  i:  cape.,  capi. 


VERBS  m 10. 


107 


Imperative. 


SINGULAR. 

Ryes,  cape  ; 

Fut.  capito, 
capito ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres,  capere. 

Perf.  cepisse. 

Fut  capturus  esse. 

Gerund. 

Gen.  capiendi, 

Dat  capiendo, 

Acc.  capiendum, 
Ahl.  capiendo. 


PLURAL. 

capite, 

capitote, 

capiunto. 

Participle, 

Pres,  capiens. 

Fut.  capturus. 

Supine. 

Acc.  captum, 
Abl.  captti. 


219.  PASSIVE  VOIUK— Capior, /am  tofa. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pees.  Inp.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind 

capior,  capi,  captus  sum. 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL, 

capior,  caperis,  capitur ; | capimur,  capimini,  capiuntur. 

Imperfect. 

capiebar,  -iebaris,  -iebatur ; | capiebamur,  -iebamim,  -iebantur. 

Future. 

capiar,  -ieris,  -ietur ; | capiemur,  -ieminl,  -ientur. 

Perfect. 

captus  sum,  es,  est ; | capti  sumus,  estis,  sunt. 

Pluperfect. 

captus  eram,  eras,  erat ; | capti  eramus,  eratis,  erant. 

Future  Perfect. 

captus  ero,  eris,  erit ; | capti  erimus,  eritis,  erunt. 


108 


VERBAL  INFLECTIONS. 


Subjunctive. 


SINGULAR. 

capiar,  -iaris,  -iatur ; 


Present.  . t 

PLURAL. 

I capiamur,  -iaminl,  -iantur. 
Imperfect. 

caperer,  -ereris,  -eretur ; | caperemur,  -ereminl,  -erentur 

Perfect. 

captus  sim,  sis,  sit ; | capti  simus,  sitis,  sint. 

Pluperfect. 

captus  essem,  esses,  esset ; | capti  essemus,  essetis,  essent 

Imperative. 

Pres.  capere;  | capimini. 

Fut.  capitor,  I 


capitor ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres.  capi. 

Perf.  captus  esse. 
Fut  captum  Iri. 


capiuntor. 

Participle. 

Perf.  captus. 
Fut  capiendus. 


verbal  IOTT^CTTONS. 


220.  The  Principal  Parts  are  formed^ in  the  four  conjuga- 
tions with  the  following  endings,  including  the  characteristic  vow- 
els, a,  e,  e,  i : 


CoNj.  I.  6, 

are,  avi. 

atum, 

am5. 

amare,  amavi. 

amatum,  to  love. 

CoNj.  II.  In  a few  verbs:  ed, 

ere,  evi, 

etum. 

deleO, 

delere,  delevi. 

deletum,  to  destroy. 

In  most  verbs : eO, 

ere,  ui. 

itum, 

moneO, 

monere,  monui. 

monitum,  to  advise. 

Con  j.  III.  In  consonant  stems : 6, 

ere,  si. 

tum. 

carpo. 

carpere,  carpsi. 

carptum,  to  pluck. 

In  vowel  stems:  5, 

ere,  i, 

tum. 

acuo, 

acuere,  acui. 

acutum,  to  sharpen > 

CoNj.  IV.  i6. 

ire,  ivi, 

itum. 

audio, 

audire,  audivi, 

auditum,  to  hear. 

221.  Compounds  of  verbs  with  dissyllabic  Supines  generally 
change  the  stem-vowel  in  forming  the  principal  parts : ^ 

I.  When  the  Present  of  the  compound  has  i for  e of  the  simple  verb : 


VERBAL  INFLECTIONB. 


109 


1.  The  Perfect  and  Supine  generally  resume  the  e : ^ 

regdf  regere,  rexi,  rectum,  fo  rule. 

di-rig6,  dirigere,  direxi,  directum,  to  direct, 

2.  But  sometimes  only  the  Supine  resumes  the  e : ^ 

teneo,  tenure,  tenui,  tentum,  to  hold, 

de-tineo,  detinere,  detinui,  detentum,  to  detain, 

II.  When  the  Present  of  the  compound  has  i for  a of  the  simple  verb : 

1.  The  Perfect  generally  resumes  the  vowel  of  the  simple  perfect,  and 
the  Supine  takes  e,*  sometimes  a; 

capio,  capere,  cepi,  captum,  to  take, 

ac-cipio,  accipere,  accepi,  acceptum,  to  accept, 

2.  But  sometimes  the  Perfect  retains  i and  the  Supine  takes  e : * 

rapid,  rapere,  rapui,  raptum,  to  seize. 

di-ripi6,  diripere,  diripui,  direptum,  to  tear  asunder. 

Note.— For  Reduplication  in  compounds.,  see  255,  I.,  4;  other  peculiarities  of 
compounds  will  be  noticed  under  the  separate  conjugations. 

222.  All  the  forms  of  any  regular  verb  arrange  themselves  in 
three  distinct  groups  or  systems  : 

I.  The  Present  System,  with  the  Present  Infinitive  as  its  basis, 
comprises — 

1.  The  Present.,  Imperfect.,  and  Future  Indicative — Active  and  Passive. 

2.  The  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive — Active  and  Passive. 

3.  The  Imperative — Active  and  Passive. 

4.  The  Present  Infinitive — Active  and  Passive. 

6.  Present  Active  Participle. 

6.  The  Gerund  and  the  Gerundive. 

Note. — These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Present  Stem.,  found  in  the 
Present  Infinitive  Active  by  dropping  the  ending  re : amare.,  present  stem 
AMl ; monere.,  mone  ; regere.,  rege  ; audire.,  audi. 

II.  The  Perfect  System,  with  the  Perfect  Indicative  Active  as 
its  basis,  comprises  in  the  Active  Voice — 

1.  The  Perfect.,  Pluperfect.,  and  Future  Perfect  Indicative. 

2.  The  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive. 

3.  The  Perfect  Infinitive. 

Note. — These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Perfect  Stem^  found  in  the 
Perfect  Indicative  Active,  by . dropping  i:  amdvi.,  perfect  stem  amav; 
monui.,  MONU. 

III.  The  Supine  System,  with  the  Supine  as  its  basis,  comprises — 


^ The  favorite  vowel  before  a?,  or  two  or  more  consonants ; see  24,  1. 


no 


SrmPSIS  OP  CONJUGATION. 


1.  The  Supines  in  um  and  it,  the  former  of  which  with  iri  forms  the 
Future  Infinitive  Passive. 

2.  The  Future  Active  and  Perfect  Passive  Participles.,  the  former  of 
which  with  esse  forms  the  Future  Active  Infinitive.,  and  the  latter  of  which 
with  the  proper  parts  of  the  auxiliary  sum  forms  in  the  Passive  those 
tenses  which  in  the  Active  belong  to  the  Perfect  System. 

Note. — These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Supine  Stem,  found  in  the 
Supine  by  dropping  um : amatum,  supine  stem  amat  ; monitum,  monit. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  CONJUGATION 


FIRST  CONJUGATION. 
223.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Amo,  limit. 


1.  Principal  Parts. 

amo,  amare,  amavi,  amatum. 


2.  Present  System;  Stem,  ama. 


INDICATIVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

IMPER. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres,  amo 

amem 

ama 

amare 

amans 

Imp.  amabam 
Fut.  amabo 

amarem 

amato 

Gerund,  amandi,  do,  etc. 


Perf.  amavT 
Plup.  amaveram 
F.  P.  amavero 


3.  Perfect  System  ; Stem,  amav. 


amaverim 

amavisse 

amavissem 

4.  Supine  System  ; Stem,  amat. 

Fut.  I I I amaturus  eSse  | amaturus 

Supine,  amatum,  amatu. 


224.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Amor,  lam  loved. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 
amor,  amari,  amatus  sum. 


2.  Present  System;  Stem,  ama. 


Pres,  amor 

amer 

amare 

amSrl 

Imp.  amabar 

amarer 

Fut.  amabor 

amator 

Gerundive,  amandus. 


SYJ^OFSIS  OF  CONJUGATION, 
3.  Supine  System;  Stem,  amdt. 


INDICATIVE. 

Perf.  amatus  sum 
Plup.  amatus  eram 
F.  P.  amatus  ero 
Fut. 


Ill 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

IMPER. 

INFINITIVE. 

amatus  sim 

amatus  esse 

amatus  essem 

( 

amatum  Iri  1 

I PARTICIPLE. 

amatus 


SECOND  CONJUGATION. 
225.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Moneo,  I advhe. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 
moneo,  monere,  monui, 

2.  Present  System  ; Stem,  mone. 


monitum. 


Pres.  moneo 

moneam 

mone 

monere 

Imp.  monebam 
Fut.  monebo 

monerem 

moneto 

mongns 


Gerund^  monendi,  do,  etc. 

3.  Perfect  System;  Stem,  monu. 


Perf.  monul 
Plup.  monueram 
F^  P,  monuero 


Fut. 


monuerim 

monuisse 

monuissem 

4.  Supine  System  ; Stem,  monit. 

I I I moniturus  esse  | moniturus 

Supine^  monitum,  monitu. 


226.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Moneor,  I am  advised. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

moneor,  moneri,  monitus  sum. 

2.  Present  System;  Stem,  mone. 

Pres,  moneor 
Imp.  monebar 
Fut.  monebor 

Gerundive.,  monendus. 

3.  Supine  System  ; Stem,  monit. 


monear 

monere 

monerer 

monetor 

moneri  | 

Perf.  monitus  sum 

monitus  sim 

monitus  esse 

Plup.  monitus  eram 

monitus  essem 

F.  P.  monitus  ero 

Fut. 

monitum  iri 

monitus 


112 


SYJ^OPSIS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 

227.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Rego,  I rule, 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

reg5,  regere,  rexi,  rectum. 


2.  Present  System;  Stem,  rege. 


INDICATIVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

IMPERATIVE. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres, 

rego 

regam 

rege 

regere 

Imp^ 

regebam 

regerem 

regito 

Fut. 

legam 

Gerund^  regendi,  do,  etc. 


Perf.  rexi 
Plup.  rgxeram 
F.  P.  rexero 


3.  Perfect  System;  Stem,  rex. 


rexerim 

rexisse 

rexissem 

Fat. 


4.  Supine  System;  Stem,  red. 

1 I recturus  esse  ) 

Supine y rectum,  rectu. 


228.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Regor,  / am  ruled. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

regor,  regl,  rectus  sum. 


2.  Present  System;  Stem,  rege. 


Presi.  regor 

regar 

regere 

regi 

Imp.  regebar 
Fut.  regar 

regerer 

regitor 

Gerundive.,  regendus. 


3.  Supine  System;  Stem,  red. 


Perf.  rectus  sum 

rectus  sim 

rectus  esse 

Plup.  rectus  eram 

rectus  essem 

F.  P.  rectus  ero 

Fui. 

rectum  M 

participle. 

regens 


recttlrus 


rictus 


SYJ^OPSIS  OF  COmVOATlOF. 


113 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION^. 

229.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Audio,  / hear. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

audio,  audire,  audivi,  auditum. 

2.  Present  System;  Stem,  audi. 


INDICATIVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.  1 

IMPER. 

INFINITIVE. 

audio 

audiam 

audi 

audire 

audiebam 

audiam 

audirem 

audito 

PARTICIPLE. 

audiens 


Gerund.,  audiendi,  do,  etc. 

3.  Perfect  System;  Stem,  audiv. 


Perf.  audivi 
Plup.  audiveram 
F.  P.  audivero 


FuU 


audiverim 

audivisse 

audivissem 

4.  Supine  System  ; Stem,  audit. 

I I 1 auditurus  esse  | auditurus 

Supine.,  auditum,  auditu. 


230.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Audior,  I am  heard. 

1.  Principal  Parts 

audior,  audiri,  auditus  sum. 

2.  Present  System  ; Stem,  audi. 


audior 

audiar 

audire 

audiri 

audiebar 

audirer 

audiar 

auditor 

Gerundive,  audiendus 
3.  Supine  System  ; Stem,  audit 


Perf.  auditus  sum 

auditus  sim 

auditus  esse 

Plup.  auditus  eram 

auditus  essem 

F.  P.  auditus  ero 

Fut 

auditum  iri 

auditus 


9 


Il4 


l)EPONENf  VERM, 


\/  BEPO.NENT  VERBS. 

231.  Deponent  Verbs  have  in  general  the  forms  of  the  Passive 
Voice  with  the  signification  of  the  Active.  But — 

1.  They  have  also  in  the  Active,  the  future  infinitive,  the  participles, 
gerund,  and  supine. 

2.  The  gerundive  generally  has  the  passive  signification ; sometimes 
also  the  perfect  participle : hortandus^  to  be  exhorted ; expertus^  tried. 

8.  The  Future  Infinitive  of  the  Passive  form  is  rare,  as  the  Active  form 
is  generally  used. 

Note.— The  synopsis  of  a single  example  will  sufiBcient/y  illustrate  the  peculiarities 
of  Deponent  Verbs. 

232.  Hortor,  I exhort 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

hortor,  hortari,  hortatus  sum. 


2.  Present  System  ; Stem,  liorta. 


INDICATIVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

IMPER. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pm.  hortor  ^ 

horter 

hortare 

hortari 

Imp.  hortabar 
Fut.  hortabor 

hortarer 

hortator 

Gerund^  hortandi. 


Gerundive^  hortandus. 


3.  Supine  System;  Stem,  hortat 


Perf.  hortatus  sum 
Plup.  hortatus  eram 
F.  P.  hortatus  ero 
Fut 


hortatus  sim 
hortatus  essem 


hortatus  esse 


hortaturus  esse 


PARTICIPLE. 

hortans 


hortatus 


hortaturus 


Supine^  hortatum,  hortatu. 


Note.— For  the  Principal  Parts  of  Deponent  Verbs  in  the  other  conjugations,  see 
268,  283,  and  288.  From  these  Principal  Parts  the  pupil,  by  the  aid  of  the  paradigms 
already  learned,  will  be  able  to  inflect  any  Deponent  Verb.  » * „ , , y 

f'  PERIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATION. 

233.  The  Active  Periphrastic  Conjugation,  formed\ 
by  combining  the  Future  Active  Participle  ivith  sum,  de 
notes  an  intended  or  future  action: 

1 The  tenses  are  inflected  regularly  through  the  persons  and  numbers  : hor- 

taris,, hortatur,,  hortamur,  hortamini,  hortantur.  AU  the  forms  in  this  synopsis  have 
the  active  meaning.  I exhort,  I was  exhoriiiuf,  etc.,  except  the  Gerundive,  which  has 
the  passive  force,  deserving  to  he  exhorted,  to  be  exhorted.  The  Gerundive,  as  it  is 
passive  in  meaning,  cannot  be  used  in  intransitive  Deponent  Verbs,  except  in  an  imper- 
sonal sense ; see  301, 1. 


PECULIARITIES  IN  CONJUGATION- 


115 


Amaturus  sum,  / am  about  to  love. 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres,  amaturus  sum  ^ 

Imp.  amaturus  eram 
Fut.  amaturus  ero 
Perf.  amaturus  fui 
Plup.  amaturus  fueram 
F.  P.  amaturus  fuero  ^ 

/ 

V 234.  The  Passive  Periphrastic  Coi^^jugatiois’,  formed 
by  combining  the  Gerundive  with  sum,  denotes  necessity  or 
duty. 

Amandus  sum^  I must  be  loved,’^ 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

amaturus  sim 
amaturus  essem 

amaturus  fuerim 
amaturus  fuissem 


INFINITIVE. 

amaturus  esse 
amaturus  fuisse 


Pres.  amandus  sum  . 
Imp.  amandus  eram 
Fut.  amandus  ero 
Perf.  amandus  fui 
Plup.  amandus  fueram 
F.  P.  amandus  fuero 


amandus  sim 
amandus  essem 

amandus  fuerim 
amandus  fuissem 


amandus  esse 


amandus  fuisse 


Note.— The  Periphrastic  Conjug-ation,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  term,  includes  all 
forms  compounded  of  participles  with  sum  ; but  as  the  Pres.  Part,  with  sum  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  Pres.  Ind.  {amdns  est  = amat\  and  is  accordingly  seldom  used,  and  as  the 
Perf.  Part,  with  sum  is,  in  the  strictest  sense,  an  integral  part  of  the  regular  conjugation, 
the  term  Periphrastic,  is  generally  limited  to  the  two  conjugations  above  given. 


/ PECULIARITIES  IN  CONJUGATION.  /. 

235.  Perfects  in  avi,  evl,  ivi,  and  the  tenses  derived 
from  them,  sometimes  drop  v and  suffer  contraction  before 
s and  X,  and  sometimes  before  t.  Thus — 

A with  the  following  vowel  becomes  a : amavisti  (amaisti),  amdsfl ; 
amdverara  (amaeram),  amdram  ; amdvisse  (amaisse),  amdsse  ; amdvit  (ama- 
it),  amdt. 

£i  with  the  following  vowel  becomes  e : nevl  (to  spin),  nevisti  (neisti), 
nestl  ; neverunt  (neerunt),  nerunt. 

I-i  and  i-i  become  i : audivisti  (audiisti),  audisti ; audivissem  (audiis- 
sem), audissem ; audivit  (audiit),  audit. 

1.  Perfects  in  ivi  sometimes  drop  v in  any  of  their  forms,  but  generally 
without  contraction, 3 except  before  s : audivi.^  audii^  audiit.,  audieram  / audi- 
visti^ audiisti  or  audisti. 


1 The  periphrastic  forms  are  inflected  regularly  through  the  persons  and  numbers; 
amaturus  sum.,  es,  est.  The  Fut.  Perf.  is  rare.  2 j deserve  (ought)  to  he  loved. 

3 Then  in  prose  the  first  i retains  quantity  and  accent : audi[-l,  audV-it.  See 
Seelmann,  p.  94. 


116 


PEClTLIARITim  IN  CONJUGATION 


2.  Perfects  in  ovl, — The  perfects  of  noscO^  to  know,  and  moved^  to  move, 
sometimes  drop  v and  sutfer  contraction  before  r and  s : nbvlstl^  nmtl, 

3.  Perfects  in  si  and  xl  sometimes  drop  Is^  is,  or  sis:  scripsisti^  scrlpstl ; 
dixisse^  dlxe  access’istis,  accestis. 

236.  The  ending  ere  for  erunt  in  the  Perfect  is  com- 
mon in  Livy  and  the  poets,  but  rare  in  Cicero  and  Caesar. 

Note.— The  form  in  ere  does  not  drop  v.  In  poetry  erv/nt  occurs. 

237.  R®  foi*  ^is  in  the  ending  of  the  second  Person  of  the  Passive  is 
rare  in  the  Present  Indicative,  but  common  in  the  other  tenses. 

238.  lyiOj  due,  fac,  and  fer,  for  dlce^  duce,  face^  and  fere^  are  the 
Imperatives  of  dic6^  dueb^  facib^  and  ferd^  to  say,  lead,  make,  and  bear. 

Note  1. — Z)?ce,  duce,  aniXface  occur  in  poetry. 

Note  2.— Compounds  follow  the  simple  verbs,  except  those  of  facib^  which  change  a 
into  i : conjice. 

239.  Undus  and  undi  for  endus  and  endl  occur  as  the  endings  of  the 
Gerundive  and  Gerund  of  Conj.  III.  and  IV.,  especially  after  i:  faciundus^ 
from  facib^  to  make ; dlcimdus^  from  dlcb.,  to  say. 

240.  Ancient  and  Rare  Forms. — Various  other  forms,  belonging  in 
the  main  to  the  earlier  Latin,  occur  in  the  poets,  even  of  the  classical 
period,  and  occasionally  also  in  prose,  to  impart  to  the  style  an  air  of  an- 
tiquity or  solemnity.  Thus  forms  in — 

1.  ibam  for  ieham^  in  the  Imperfect  Ind.  of  Conj.  IV.:  sciham  for 
scieham.  See  Imperfect  of  cd,  to  go,  295. 

2.  ibo,  ibor,  for  iam^  iar^  in  the  Future  of  Conj.  IV. : servihb  for  ser- 
viam; opperihor  for  opperiar.  See  Future  of  cd,  295. 

3.  im  for  am  or  em,  in  the  Pres.  Subj. : edim.^  edlSy  etc.,  for  edam,  edas^ 
etc.  ; duim  (from  duO^  for  c/d),  for  dem. — In  sim,  velhn^  nolim^  malim  (204 
and  293),  im  is  the  common  ending. 

4.  ass6,  ess6,  and  s6,  in  the  Future  Perfect,  and  assim,  essim,  and 
sim,  in  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  of  Conj.  I.,  II.,  III. : faxb  (facso)  for 
fecerb  ^ (from  facio) ; faxim  for  fecerim  ^ ; ausim  for  ausus  sim.  (for  ause- 
rim.^  from  audeb).  Rare  examples  are  : levdssb  for  levdverb  ; prohihessb  for 
proliihuerb  ; jussb  iov  jusserb  ; capsb  for  ceperb  ; axb  for  egerb  ; occlsit  for 
occiderit ; taxis  for  tetigeris. 

5.  t6  and  min6  for  toi\  the  former  in  both  numbers,  the  latter  in  the 
singular,  of  the  Future  Imperative,  Passive  and  Deponent : arhitrdtb.,  arhi- 
trdminb  for  arbitrator  ; utuntb  for  utuntor. 

6.  ier  for  i in  the  Present  Passive  Infinitive  : amarier  for  amdri  ; vide- 
rier  for  videri. 


1 Remember  that  r in  erb  and  erim  was  originally  s;  see  31, 1 ; 304,  foot-note  2. 


ANALYSIS  OF  VERBAL  ENDINGS. 


117 


ANALYSIS  OF  YEUBAL  ENDINGS. 

241.  The  endings  which  are  appended  to  the  stems  in  the  for- 
mation of  the  various  parts  of  the  finite  verb  contain  three  distinct 
elements : 

1.  The  Tense-Sign:  ba  in  ama-ba-m^  rege-ha~8. 

2.  The  Mood- Vowel:  a in  mone-a-s^  reg-d-s. 

3.  The  Personal  Ending  : s in  mone-ds^  reg-ds. 

I.  Tense-Signs. 

242.  The  Present  is  without  any  tense-sign : amd-s.  So  also 
the  Future  ^ in  Conjugations  III.  and  IV. 

243.  In  the  other  tense-forms  of  all  regular  verbs,  the  tense-sign 
is  found  in  the  auxiliary  with  which  these  forms  are  all  compounded : 

Amd-bam^  amdv-eram  ; amd-bb^  amdv-erb  ; mone-bam^  monu-eram. 

II.  Mood- Signs. 

244.  The  Indicative  has  no  special  sign  to  mark  the  Mood. 

^245.  The  Subjunctive  has  a long  vowel — a,  e,®  or  — before 

the  Personal  Endings  : 

Mone-d-mm^  mone-d-iis^  am-e-mus^  am-e-tis^  s-i-mus^  s-i-iis. 

Notb.— This  vowel  is  shortened  before  final  m and  t,  and  generally  in  the  Perfect 
before  8,  mtis,  and  tis . moneam^  amet.,  sit,  fueris.,  amaverimus,  amaveritis. 

1 This  Future  is  in  form  a Present  Subjunctive,  though  it  has  assumed  in  full  the 
force  of  the  Futn^e  Indicative;  see  foot-note  4 below. 

Bam  and  eram  are  both  auxiliary  verbs  in  the  Imperfect,  the  former  from  the  stem 
hhu.thQ  old  form  of  fu  in  fu-l.  and  the  latter  from  the  stem  es;  the  former  added  to  the 
Present  stem  forms  the  Imperfect,  the  latter  added  to  the  Perfect  stem  forms  the  Pluper- 
fect. Bd  and  erO  are  Future  forms,  the  former  from  hhu,  the  latter  from  es ; the  former 
added  to  the  Present  stem  forms  the  Future  in  Conjugations  I.  and  II.,  the  latter  added 
to  the  Perfect  stem  forms  the  Future  Perfect.  In  the  Subjunctive  the  tense-forms,  except 
the  Present,  are  compounded  with  Subjunctive  tense-forms  from  es;  thus,  erem  in  rig- 
erem is  for  esem,  the  old  form  of  essem  ; erim  in  reoe-erim  is  for  esim  — sim.  and  isstm 
in  resi'-is'^em  is  for  essem ; thus  the  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive  of  sum  added  to 
the  Perfect  stem  form  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive. 

3 This  e comes  from  a-1,  of  which  the  I aloue  is  the  true  Mood  Sign. 

4 The  Latin  Subjunctive  contains  the  forms  of  two  distinct  Moods— the  Subjunctive 

with  the  sign  a,  and  the  Optative  with  the  sign  i,  sometimes  contained  in  e for  a-l. 
Thus:  Subjunctive,  -772 audi-d-tis;  Optative,  s-2-?7?24s%  reo’er-i-tis,  am-e-mus 

for  ama-l-mus.  reger-e-s  for  regera-i-s.  The  Subjunctive  and  Optative  forms,  originally 
distinct,  have  in  the  Latin  been  blended  into  one  Mood,  called  the  Subjunctive,  and  are 
used  without  any  difference  of  meaning.  Thus  the  Mood  in  mone-d-mus,  a Subjunctive 
form,  has  precisely  the  same  force  as  in  m -mnx.  an  Optative  form.  The  First  Person 
Singular  of  Futures  in  am — regam,  audi  im.  etc, — is  in  form  a Subjunctive,  while  the 
other  Persons,  reges,  et,  etc.,  audies,  et,  etc.,  are  in  form  Optatives. 


118 


PJSRSONAL  ENDINGS, 


246.  The  Imperative  is  distinguished  by  its  Personal  Endings; 
6ee  247,  3. 

III.  Personal  Endings. 

247.  The  Personal  Endings  are  formed  from  ancient  pronom- 
inal stems,  and  have,  accordingly,  the  force  of  pronouns  in  Eng- 
lish. They  are  as  follows  •. 


Person.  Active. 

Passive. 

Meaning. 

Singular.^ 

First  m 

r 

/ 

Second  s 

ris 

thou.,  you 

Third  t 

tur 

he^  she,  it 

PluraU 

First  mus 

mur 

we 

Second  tis 

mini  3 

you 

Third  nt 

ntur 

they 

EXAMPLES. 

amaba-m 

amaba-r 

regO 

rego-r 

amaba-s 

amaba-ris 

regi-s 

rege-ris 

amaba-t 

amaba-tur 

regi-t 

regi-tur 

amaba-mus 

amaba-mnr 

regi-mus 

regi-mur 

amaba-tis 

amaba-mini 

regi-tis 

regi-mini 

amaba-nt 

amaba-ntur 

regu-nt 

regu-ntur 

1.  Omitted. — In  the  Present,^  Perfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Ind.  of  all 
the  conjugations,  and  in  the  Future  Ind.  of  Conjugations  I.  and  II.,  the 
ending  m does  not  appear.  In  these  forms  the  First  Person  ends  in  0:^ 
amO^  amahb^  amavero  ; except  in  the  Perfect,  where  it  ends  in  ^ .•  ® amdvi. 

2.  The  endings  of  the  Perfect  Active  are  peculiar.  They  are  the  same 
as  in  fui: 

1 In  the  Singular  these  Personal  Endings  contain  each — (1)  in  the  Active  Voice  one 
pronominal  stem,  m,  I;  s,  thou,  you;  t,  he;  and  (2)  in  the  Passive  two  such  stems,  one 
denoting  the  Person,  and  the  other  the  Passive  Voice:  thus,  in  the  ending  tur^  t (tu) 
denotes  the  person,  and  /*,  the  voice.  E of  the  first  person  stands  for  m-r. 

2 In  the  Plural  the  Endings  contain  each— (1)  in  the  Active  two  pronominal  stems : 
mu-s  — m (mu')  and  s,  I and  you,  i.  e.,  we ; tis  = t (the  original  form  for  .<?,  thou,  as  seen 
in  thou)  and  s,  = s and  s,  thou  and  thou,  i.  e.,  you;  nt—  n and  he  and  he,  i.  e.,  they; 
and  (2)  in  the  Passive  three  such  stems,  the  third  denoting  the  Passive  Voice : thus  in 
ntur^  nt  (ntu)  denotes  the  person  and  number,  and  r,  the  voice. 

3 Mini  was  not  originally  a Personal  Ending,  but  the  Plural  of  a Passive  Participle, 
not  otherwise  used  in  Latin,  but  seen  in  the  Greek  (jutevot).  Amdminl^  originally  amami- 
ni sstis,  means  yoic  are  loved,  as  amCitl  eatis  means  you  have  heen  loved. 

^ Except  in  sum,  I am,  and  inquam,  I say. 

5 The  origin  of  this  final  0 is  uncertain.  Curtius  regards  it  as  simply  the  thematic 
vowel,  but  Meyer  recognizes  in  it  a combined  with  the  thematic  vowel;  see  Cur' 
tins,  Verbum,  I.,  pp.  199,  200;  Meyer,  p.  349. 

® Probably  a part  of  the  stem ; but  see  Curtius,  Verbum,  II.,  p.  ITS ; Papillon,  pp.  194- 
196 ; also  two  papers  by  the  author,  on  the  Formation  of  the  Tenses  for  Completed  Action 
tn  the  Latin  Finite  Verb;  Transactions  of  the  Am.  Phil.  Assoc.,  1874  and  1875. 


FORMATION  OF  STEMS. 


119 


First  Fers. 

Second 

Third 


Singular. 

fu-ii 

fu-is-ti 

fu-i-t 


Plural. 
fu-i-mus 
fu-is-tis 
fu-eru-nt  or  ere 


3.  The  Imperative  Mood  has  the  following  Personal  Endings : 


active.  passive. 


Singular.  Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Pres.  Second  Pers. 

—2  te 

re 

mini 

Fut.  Second 

to 

tote 

tor 

Third 

t6 

nto 

tor 

ntor 

248.  Infinitives,  Participles,  Gerunds,  and  Supines  are  formed 
with  the  following  endings  : 

Active.  Passive. 

Infinitive  Present  re  (ere)  ri  (erl),  I 

Perfect  isse  us  esse 

Future  tirus  esse  um  hi 


Participle  Present  ns 

Future  tirus 

Perfect 
Gerundive 

Gerund  ndl 

Supine  um,  u 


us 

ndus 


FOKMATION  OF  STEMS. 

249.  The  three  Special  Stems  are  all  formed  from  the  Verb  Stem. 

I.  Present  Stem. 

250.  The  Present  Stem,  found  in  the  Present  Infinitive  Active 
by  dropping  re^  is  generally  the  same  as  the  Yerb  Stem  in  the  First 
and  in  the  Fourth  Conjugations,  and  sometimes  in  the  Second. 
Thus,  amd^  dele^  and  audl  ^ are  both  Present  Stems  and  Verb  Stems. 

1 M is  omitted  in  the  first  person,  and  an  ancient  form  of  sz,  s,  is  used  in  the  sec- 
ond. Otherwise  the  endings  themselves  are  regular,  but  in  the  second  person  tl  and  Us 
are  preceded  by  Is,  and  erunt  in  fu-erunt  is  for  esunt,  the  full  form  for  sunt.  Thus 
fu-erunt  is  a compound  of  fu  and  esunt  for  sunt.  Fu-istis,  in  like  manner,  may  be  a 
compound  oi  fu  and  isUs  for  estis,  and  fu-isU,  of  fu  and  istl  for  esti  for  es. 

-2  In  the  Present  the  ending  is  dropped  in  the  Sing.  Act.,  and  the  endings  te  and  re 
are  shortened  from  Us  and  ris  of  the  Indicative  by  dropping  s and  changing  final  i into 
e;  see  34, 1,  note.  In  the  Future,  to  of  the  second  person  corresponds  to  ti  of  the  Per- 
fect Ind.;  to  and  ntb  of  the  third  person  to  t and  nt.  Tor  and  ntor  add  r to  tb  and  nt^. 
Tote  doubles  the  pronominal  stem. 

3 The  final  vowels  are  generally  explained  as  derived  from  aja,  which  became,  in 
(X)nJ.  I.,  cyo,  shortened  to  b in  am-b,  and  to  d in  tlie  other  forms,  as  am-d-nms;  iij 


130 


FORMATION  OF  STEMS. 


251.  The  Present  Stem,  when  not  the  same  as  the  Verb  Stem, 
is  formed  from  it  by  one  of  the  following  methods  : 


1.  By  adding  a short  vowel,  called  the  Thematic  vowel : 

reg6 ; Stem.,  reg ; Present  Stem.,  rege ; 

canO ; “ can ; “ cane ; 


2.  By  adding  a Thematic  vowel  preceded  by  n,  sc,  or  t : 


sin6 ; ^ 
spernO ; 
temno ; 
veterasco ; 
cresco ; 
plecto ; 


Stem.,  si ; 

“ sper,  spre ; 
“ tern ; 

“ vetera ; 

“ ere ; 

‘‘  plec; 


Present  Stem.,  sine ; 

“ sperne ; 

“ temne; 

“ veterasce ; 

“ cresce ; 

“ plecte; 


to  rule, 
to  sing. 


to  'permit, 
to  spurn, 
to  despise, 
to  grow  old. 
to  increase, 
to  braid. 


3.  By  adding  a Thematic  vowel  preceded  by  i or  j : 

capio  ; Stem:,  cap  ; Present  Stem.,  cap-j^e,  cape  ; 2 to  take. 

pello ; “ pel;  “ pel-je,  pelle ; 2 to  drive, 

currO ; “ cur;  ‘‘  cur-je,  curre ; 2 to  run. 


4.  By  adding  a Thematic  vowel  and  inserting  n — changed  to  m before 
a labial,  b or  p ; see  33,  3 : 


frangO  ; Stem.,  frag ; 
fundo  ; “ fud  ; 

rumpO  ; ‘‘  rup  ; 


Present  Stem.,  frange  ; to  break, 

“ funde ; to  pour. 

“ rumpe ; toourst. 


6.  By  adding  a,  e,  or  i : 

juvo  Stem.,  juv ; Present  Stem.,  juva ; to  assist. 

video;  “ vid ; “ vide;  to  see. 

haurio ; ‘‘  haur /or  haus ; “ haurl ; to  draw. 


6.  By  reduplicating  the  stem  : 

sisto ; Stem.,  sta ; Present  Stem.,  sista,®  siste ; to  place. 

serO ; sa ; “ sisa,  sise,  sere ; ^ to  sow. 

Note. — Sometimes  two  of  these  methods  are  united  in  the  same  stem  : 


gigno  ; Stem.,  gen  ; I¥esent  Stem.,  gigene,  gigne  ; ^ to  beget. 

nanciscor ; “ nac ; “ nancisce ; ® to  obtain. 


Conj.  II.,  ejo,  shortened  to  eb  in  del-eb.,  and  to  e in  dU-e-mus;  and  in  Conj.  IV.,  ijo., 
shortened  to  ib  in  aud-ib.,  to  iu  in  aud-iu-nt.  and  to  I in  aud-l-mus;  see  335,  foot-note. 

1 This  Thematic  vowel,  originally  a,  is  generally  weakened  to  e or  i .•  reg-e-re,  reg-i- 
m2is ; but  sometimes  it  appears  to  take  the  form  of  b or  u:  reg-b,  reg-u-nt.  There  is, 
however,  some  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  origin  of  0 in  such  cases ; see 
347, 1,  foot-note  5 

2 With  variable  Thematic  vowel ; see  foot-note  1,  above.  J,  pronounced  y,  assimi- 
lated to  I and  r in  pelle  and  curre,  as  in  the  Greek  jSdAAw,  from  jSdA-^'co.  See  Curtius, 
Verbum,  I.,  p.  300. 

2 For  stista  for  stasta.  The  e in  siste  takes  the  several  forms  of  the  Thematic  vowel. 

^ S changed  to  r between  two  vowels;  see  31,  1.  The  vowel  a of  the  stem  is 
weakened  to  i before  s,  but  to  e before  r;  see  34, 1 and  2. 

® Reduplication  with  Thematic  vowel. 

® N inserted  and  i-sc-e  added. 


FORMATION  OF  STEMS, 


121 


II.  Perfect  Stems. 

252.  Vowel  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  by  adding  v: 

amO  (a-6),  amavi ; Stem^  aina  ; Perfect  Stem,,  amav  ; to  love, 

dele6,  delevi ; dele ; “ delev ; to  destroy, 

audio,  audivi ; “ audi ; “ audiv ; to  hear, 

1.  In  verbs  in  u6,,  the  Perfect  Stem  is  the  same  as  the  Verb  Stem : 
a3uo,  acui ; Stem,,  acu ; Perfect  Stem,,  acu ; to  sharpen, 

253.  Many  Liquid  Stems,  and  a few  others,  form  the  Perfect 

Stem  by  adding  u : 

al6,  alui ; Stem^  al ; Perfect  Stem,,  alu ; to  nourish, 

fremO,  fremui ; “ frem ; fremu ; to  rage, 

teneo,  tenui ; “ ten ; ‘‘  tenu ; to  hold, 

doced,  docui ; ‘‘  doc ; “ docu ; to  teach, 

254.  Most  Consonant  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  by  adding  s; 

regO,  rexi ; Stem,,  reg  * Perfect  Stem,,  rex  = regs  ; to  rule. 

scribo,  scripsi ; “ scrib ; “ scrips  = scribs ; to  write. 

carpO,  carpsi ; “ carp ; “ carps ; to  pluck, 

255.  A few  Consonant  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  without 
any  suffix  whatever.  But  of  these — 

I.  Some  reduplicate  the  stem  : ‘ 

canO,  cecini ; Stem,,  can ; Perfect  Stem,,  cecin ; to  sing, 

1.  The  Reduplication  consists  of  the  initial  consonant  (or  consonants) 

of  the  stem  with  the  following  vowel,  or  with  e — generally  with  the  follow- 
ing vowel,  if  that  vowel  is  6,  i,  o,  or  u,  otherwise  with  e ; see  examples  under 
871,  1,  and  878,  1. 

2.  The  Stem -Vowel  a is  generally  weakened  to  i,  sometimes  to  e : cadb^ 
cecidi  (for  cecadl),,  to  fall. 

3.  In  Verbs  beginning  with  Sp>  or  St,,  the  reduplication  retains  both  con- 
sonants, but  the  stem  drops  the  s : spondeb,,  spopondi  (for  spospondi),,  to  prom- 

/ise  ; stb,,  steti  (for  stesti),,  to  stand. 

4.  In  Compounds  the  reduplication  is  generally  dropped,  but  it  is  retained 
in  the  compounds  of  do,,  to  give  ; sto,,  to  stand ; discb,,  to  learn  ; jjcscb,,  to 
demand ; and  sometimes  in  the  compounds  of  currb,,  to  run  ; responded,,  re- 
spondi,, to  answer;  circum-dl),,  circum- dedi ; circum-stb,,  circum -steti,,  to  en- 
circle. The  compounds  of  do  which  are  of  the  third  conjugation  change  e 
of  the  reduplication  into  i : ad-db,,  ad-didi  (for  ad-dedi),,  to  add ; see  859,  lo 

II.  Some  lengthen  the  Stem-V owel : ^ 

em6,  emi ; Stem,,  em ; Perfect  Stem,,  em  ; to  buy, 

ag6,  ^ egi ; “ ag ; ‘‘  eg ; to  drive. 

ab-ig6,  ab-egi ; “ abig ; “ abeg ; to  drive  away. 

Note.— The  stem-vowels  a and  (in  compounds)  i generally  become  as  in  agb  and 
ab-igh. 


» See  lists,  871, 1,  and  878,  1. 


2 See  lists,  871,2;  87».  2. 


123 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


III.  Some  retain  the  stem  unchanged  : ^ 

Ic5,^  ici ; Stem^  Ic ; Perfect  Stem^  ic ; to  strike. 

vis6,  visi ; “ vis ; “ vis ; to  visit. 

Note. — Of  the  few  verbs  belonging-  to  this  class,  nearly  all  have  the  stem-syllable  long 

III.  Supine  Stem. 


256.  The  Supine  Stem  adds  t to  the  Verb  Stem  : 


amo,2 

dico,  ^ 

amatum ; 

Stem. 

ama ; 

Supine  Stem.,  amat; 
‘ ‘ diet ; 

to  love. 

dictum ; 

u 

dic ; 

to  say. 

moneo. 

monitum ; 

moni ; 3 

“ monit ; 

to  advise. 

deleO, 

deletum ; 

a 

. dele ; 

‘‘  delet ; 

to  destroy. 

audio, 

auditum  ; 

a 

audi ; 

‘‘  audit ; 

to  hear. 

carp6. 

carptum ; 

(( 

carp ; 

“ carpt ; 

to  pluck. 

1.  Stems  in  d and  t,  most  stems  in  1 and  r,  and  a few  others,  change 
t into  s : 

laedo, 
verto, 
verro, 
fallo. 


FIRST  CONJUGATION. 

Class  I. — Stem  in  a : Peefect  in  vi  or  uL 


laesum  ; 
versum ; 
versum ; 
falsum ; 


Stem^  laed ; 
“ vert ; 
“ verr ; 
‘‘  fall; 


Supine  Stem^  laes;^ 
“ vers ; 

“ vers ; 

“ fals ; 


to  hurt, 
to  turn, 
to  brush, 
to  deceive. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


257.  Principal  Parts  in — 0,  are,  avi,  atum.e 
These  endings  belong  to  most  verbs  of  this  conjugation.  The  follow- 
ing are  examples : 


dono 

donare 

donavi 

donatum. 

to  bestow. 

honoro 

honorare 

honoravi 

honoratum. 

to  honor. 

libero 

liberare 

liberavi 

liberatum. 

to  free. 

nomino 

nominare 

nominavi 

nominatum. 

to  narfte. 

pugno 

pugnare 

pugnavi 

pugnatum. 

to  fight. 

spero 

sperare 

speravi 

speratum. 

to  hope. 

Note  1. — Poto^  are.  Civ\.  dtum.  to  drink,  has  also  a supine,  pdtum. 

Note  2. — CenCitus.,  from  ceno.  ‘ to  dine,’  ixnd.  juratus,  iromjurd.  ‘ to  swear,’  are  active 
in  meaning,  having  dined,  etc.  Pdius,  from  poto.  is  also  sometimes  active  in  meaning 


1 See  list,  272.  S.  2 For  amad.  3 gee  207. 

4 Laes  is  for  laedt.  plans  ior  plaudt.  v\s  for  vidt.  vers  for  vertt.  fals  ior  fallt.  vers 
for  verrt;  see  35,  3,  2),  note. 

® The  Perfect  Formation  is  selected  as  the  special  basis  of  this  classification,  because 
the  irregularities  of  the  other  principal  parts  are  less  important  and  can  be  readily  as- 
sociated with  this  formation.  In  this  classification  the  regular  or  usual  formation  is  first 
given  with  a few  examples,  then  complete  lists  (1)  of  all  the  simple  verbs  which  deviate 
from  this  formation,  and  (2)  of  such  compounds  as  deviate  in  any  important  particular 
from  their  simple  verbs. 

® It  is  deemed  unnecessary  longer  to  retain  the  double  mark  over  final  0 in  verbs. 
The  pupil  has  now  learned  that  this  vowel  may  be  short,  though  it  is  generally  long  in 
the  Augustan  poets. 


FIRST  CONJUGATION.  123 


258.  Principal  Parts  in — O,  are,  ui,  itum.' 


crepo 

crepare 

crepui 

crepitum, 2 

to  creak. 

cubo 

cubare 

cubui 

cubitum,® 

domitum. 

to  recline. 

domo 

domare 

dornui 

to  tame. 

eneco 

enecare 

enecui 

enectum,^ 

to  kill. 

frico 

fricare 

fricui 

J frictum,  ) 
( fricatum,  ) 

to  rub. 

mico 

micare 

micui 

5 

to  glitter. 

plico 

plicare 

( plicavi 
]J)licui 

plicatum,  ) 
plicitum,®  ) 

to  fold. 

seco 

secare 

secui 

sectum,'^ 

to  cut. 

sono 

sonare 

sonui 

sonitum,'^ 

to  sound. 

tono 

tonare 

tonui 

— 

to  thunder 

veto 

vetare 

vetui 

vetitum. 

to  forbid. 

Class  II. — Perfect  in  i. 

259.  Principal  Parts 

in — o,  are, 

i,  tum. 

1.  With  Reduplication.® 

do 

dare 

dedi 

datum, 

to  give. 

sto 

stare 

steti 

statum. 

to  stand. 

2.  With  Lengthened 

Stem-Vowel.® 

juvo 

juvare 

juvi 

jutum,*^ 

( lavatum,®  ) 

to  assist. 

lavo 

lavare 

lavi 

•<  lautiyn,  >- 

( lotum,  ) 

to  wash. 

Note  1. — In  do  the  characteristic  a is  short  by  exception : "'o  ddbam.,  dabD.,  darem., 
etc.  Four  compounds  of  do— circumdo.,  pessumdo,  satisdo.,  and  vermmdo — are  conju- 
gated like  the  simple  verb:  the  rest  are  of  the  Third  Conjugation  (371).  The  basis  oi 
several  of  these  compounds  is  do,  ‘ to  place,’  originally  distinct  from  do,  ‘to  give,’ 

Note  2.— Compounds  of  sto  generally  want  the  Supine.  In  the  Perfect  they  have 
if  the  first  part  is  a dissyllable,  otherwise  stiti  : adsio,  adstcire,  a^stitl.  Disto  and 
eiTsio  want  Perfect  and  Supine. 


1 Note  deviations  in  the  Supine. 

2 Increpo,  are,  ui  {pm\  itum  {Cdum) ; discrepts,  are,  ui  {avT), . 

3 Compounds  which  insert  m,  as  accumbo,  etc.,  are  of  Conj.  III.;  see  373. 

^ The  simple  neco  is  regular,  and  even  in  the  compound  the  forms  in  Civi  and  Citum 
)ccur. 

® DimicO,  are,  dm  {ui),  dtum  ; emico,  are,  ui,  dtum. 

® DuplicO,  multiplico,  replico,  and  supplico,  are  regular : are,  dm,  dtum. 

^ Seco  has  participle  secdtiirus ; sono,  sondturus ; jwco,  juvdtiirus,  in  compounds 
iS&Q  juturiis.  Resono  has  Perfect  resonam.  Most  compounds  of  sono  want  the  Supine. 

« See  355,  I.  and  II. 

® In  poetry,  la/oo  is  sometimes  of  Conj.  III. : larO,  lavere,  Idvi,  etc. 

This  short  vowel  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  do  is  a root-verb  formed  directly  from 
the  root  da  without  the  suffix  from  which  the  d is  derived  in  other  verbs  in  this  conju 
gation;  see  350,  foot-note. 


124 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


260.  Deponent  Verbs. 

In  this  conjugation  deponent  verbs  are  entirely  regular. 


conor 

hortor 

miror 


conari 

hortari 

mirari 


conatus  sum, 
hortatus  sum, 
miratus  sum. 


to  endeav(/r. 
to  exhort, 
to  admire. 


SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

Class  I. — Stem  in  e : Perfect  in  vi  or  uL 

261.  Principal  Parts  in — eo,  ere,  evi,  etum. 

These  endings  belong  to  the  following  verbs  : 


deleo 

delere 

delevi 

deletum. 

to  destroy. 

compleo 

complere 

complevi 

completum,* 

io  fill. 

fleo 

flere 

flevi 

fletum. 

to  weep. 

neo 

nere 

nevi 

netum,* 

to  spin. 

262. 

Principal  Parts 

in — eo,  ere,  ui,  itum. 

These 

endings  belong 

to  most  verbs  of  this  conjugation.  The 

following  are  examples  : 

debeo 

debere 

debul 

debitum. 

to  owe. 

habeo 

habere 

habui 

habitum. 

to  have. 

moneo 

monere 

monui 

monitum. 

to  advise. 

noceo 

nocere^ 

nocui 

nocitum. 

to  hurt. 

pareo 

parere 

parui 

paritum. 

to  obey. 

placeo 

placere 

placui 

placitum. 

to  please. 

taceo 

tacere 

tacui 

tacitum. 

to  he  silent. 

Note  1. 

— Many  verbs  with  the  Perfect  in 

ui  want  the  Supine.  The  fol- 

lowing  are  the  most  important : 


candeo,  to 
egeo,  to 
emineo,  to 
floreo,  to 
frondeo,  to 
horreo,  to 
lateo,  to 


shine. 

want. 

stand  forth, 
bloom, 
hear  leaves, 
shudder, 
he  hid. 


madeo, 

niteo, 

oleo, 

palleo, 

pateo, 

rubeo, 

sileo. 


to  he  wet. 
to  shine, 
to  smell, 
to  he  pale, 
to  he  open, 
to  he  red. 
to  he  silent. 


sorbeo,  to  swallow. 
splendeo,  to  shine. 

studeo,  to  study. 

stupeo,  to  he  amazed. 

timeo,  to  fear. 

torpeo,  to  he  torpid. 

vireo,  to  he  green. 


Note  2. — Some  verbs,  derived  mostly  from  adjectives,  want  both  Perfect 
and  Supine.  The  following  are  the  most  important: 

hebeo,  to  he  hlvnt.  maereo,  to  he  sad. 

umeo,  to  he  moist.  polleo,  to  he 'jgowerful. 

immineo,  to  threaten.  renideo,  to  shine. 

lacteo,  to  suck.  squaleo,  to  he  filthy. 


albeo,  to  he  white. 
calveo,  to  he  bald. 
caneo,  to  be  gray. 
flaveo,  to  he  yellow. 


^ So  other  compounds  of  the  obsolete  pleo  : expleo,  impleo.,  etc. 

2 To  these  may  be  added  aboleO.^  abolere.,  abolevi^  abolitum.,  ‘to  destroy,’  with  Supine 
in  itum.  See  also  aboUscO.,  2'7'7. 


SECOND  CONJUGATION. 


125 


Class  II. 

— Stem  m 

C,  n,  r,  OR 

s:  Perfect  ix  ui.‘ 

263.  Principal  Parts 

in 

— e5,  ere,  ui, 

turn  or  sum.^ 

These  endings  belong 

to  the  following  verbs  : 

censeo 

censere 

censul 

censum,^ 

to  think. 

doceo 

docere 

docul 

doctum. 

to  teach. 

( mistum,  ) 

misceo 

miscere 

miscul 

( mixtum,  ) 

to  mix. 

teneo 

tenere 

tenul 

tentum,'^ 

to  hold. 

torreo 

torrere 

torrul 

tostum, 

to  roast. 

Class  III.- 

-Stem  in  a Consonani 

: : Perfect  in  si  or  i. 

264.  Principal  Parts 

in 

— eo,  ere,  si. 

tum. 

augeo 

augere 

auxi 

auctum, 

to  increase. 

indulges 

indulgere 

indulsl 

indultum. 

to  indulge. 

torqueo 

torquere 

torsi 

tortum, 

to  twist. 

265.  Principal  Parts 

in 

— eo,  ere,  si. 

sum.^ 

algeo 

algere 

alsl 

to  be  cold. 

d,rdeo 

ardere 

arsl 

arsum. 

to  burn. 

coniveo 

conivere 

( conlvl 
) conixl  \ 

to  wink  at. 

frigeo 

frigere 

frixl  (rare) 

to  be  cold. 

fulgeo 

fulgere 

fulsi 

5 

to  shine. 

haereo 

haerere 

haesi 

haesum,^ 

to  stick. 

-jubeo 

jubere 

jussl 

jussum, 

to  order. 

luceo 

lucere 

luxi 

to  shine. 

lugeo 

lugere 

luxl 

to  mourn. 

maneo 

manere 

mansi 

mansum. 

to  remain. 

mulgeo 

mulgere 

mulsl 

mulsum. 

to  milk. 

mulceo 

mulcere 

mulsl 

mulsum,"^ 

to  soothe. 

rideo 

ridere 

rlsl 

risum, 

to  laugh. 

-suadeo 

suadere 

suasi 

suasum. 

to  advise. 

tergeo 

tergere 

tersl 

tersum. 

to  wipe. 

turgeo 

turgere 

tursi  (?we) 

to  sicell. 

urgeo  (urgueo) 

urgere 

ursl 

to  press. 

Note. — CieO,  ci^re^  clm^  citum.,  to  arouse,  has  a kindred  form,  cio,  clre.,  clvi,  cHum., 
from  which  it  seems  to  have  obtained  its  Perfect.  In  compounds  the  forms  of  the  Jourth 
Conj  prevail,  especially  in  the  sense  of  to  call.,  call  forth. 


1 For  convenience  of  reference,  a General  List  of  all  verbs  involving  irregularities 
will  be  found  on  page  383. 

^ The  Present  Stem  adds  e ; see  351,  5.  ¥ or  phonetic  changes.,  see  33-36. 

’ Participle  census  and  censitus. — Percenseo  ivants  Supine  : recenseo  has  recensum 
and  recensitum. 

^ In  most  compounds  the  Supine  is  rare. 

® Poetic,  fulgo^  fulgere,  etc. 

« The  stem  of  haereo  is  haes.  The  Present  adds  e and  changes  s to  r between  two 
vowels.  In  haesl  and  haesum,  s standing  for  ss  or  st  is  not  changed. 

In  compounds  sometimes  mulctum. 


1^6 


GLAmFlCATlON  OF  VERBS, 


266.  Principal  Parts  in — e5,  ere,  i,  turn. 

With  Lengthened  Stem-Yowel. 


caveo 

cavere 

cavi 

cautum. 

to  beware. 

faved 

favere 

favi 

fautum. 

to  favor. 

foveo 

fovere 

fovi 

fotum. 

to  cherish. 

moveo 

movere 

movi 

motum. 

to  move. 

paveo 

pavere 

pavi 

to  fear. 

voveo 

vovere 

VOVI 

votum. 

to  vow. 

267. 

Principal  Parts  in — eo,  ere,  i. 

sum. 

1.  With  Reduplication.^ 

mordeo 

mordere 

momordi 

morsum, 

to  bite. 

pendeo 

pendere 

pependi 

pensum. 

to  hang. 

spondeo 

spondere 

spopondi 

sponsum, 

to  promise. 

tondeo 

tondere 

totondi 

tonsum, 

to  shear. 

2. 

With  Lengthened  Stem-Yowel. 

sedeo 

sedere 

sedi 

sessum,^ 

to  sit. 

Video 

videre 

vidl 

visum, 

to  see. 

8.  With  Unchanged 

Stem. 

coniveo 

conivere 

conivi,  conixi 

a 

to  wink-  at. 

ferveo 

fervere 

fervi,  ferbui 

to  boil. 

langueo 

languere 

langui 

to  be  languid. 

liqueo 

liquere 

liqui,  licui 

to  be  liquid. 

prandeo 

prandere 

prandi 

pransum,^ 

to  dine. 

strideo 

stridere 

stridi 

to  creak. 

268.  Deponent  Verbs. 

1.  Regular. 


liceor 

liceri 

licitus  sum. 

to  bid. 

mereor 

mereri 

meritus  sum, 

to  deserve. 

polliceor 

polliceri 

pollicitus  sum, 

to  promise. 

tueor 

tueri 

j tuitus  sum,  ) 
{ tutus  sum,  ) 

to  protect. 

vereor 

vereri 

veritus  sum. 

to  fear. 

2.  Irregular. 

fateor 

fateri 

fassus  sum,® 

to  confess. 

medeor 

mederi 

to  cure. 

misereor 

misereri 

j miseritus  sum,  ) 
( misertus  sum,  ) 

to  pity. 

reor 

reri 

ratus  sum, 

to  think. 

1 For  reduplication  in  compounds,  see  355, 1.,  4. 

2 So  circumsedeo  and  supersedeo.  Other  compounds  thus : assideo.,  ere^  assedl 
assessum;  but  dissideo.,  praesideo.,  and  resideo.,  want  Supine. 

® Observe  that  the  supine  stem  is  wanting’  in  most  of  these  verbs. 

4 Participle,  2^‘f^dnsus,  in  an  active  sense,  haring  dined. 

6 Confiteor y eri.,  confessus : so  profiteor. 


-t -ua  '■.  -f -e.-^- 

Tiimi)  comiiQAfloN. 


"}  hj  - 

12^ 


audeo 

gaudeo 

soleo 


3.  Semi-Deponent — Deponent  in  the  Perfect. 


audere  ausus  sum, 

gaudere  gavisus  sum, 

solere  solitus  sum, 


to  dare. 

to  rejoice. 

to  he  accustomed. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


Note. — This  conjugation  contains  the  primitive  verbs  of  the  language;  see  335- 

Class  I. — Stem  in  a Consonant  : Perfect  in  isi  or  L 


269.  Principal  Parts  in — o (or  io),  ere,  si,  turn. 


These  are 

the  regular 

endings  in 

verbs  whose  stems  end  in  a 

consonant. 

The  following  are  examples  : ^ 

carpo 

carpere 

carpsi 

carptum,^ 

to  pluck. 

cingo 

cingere 

cinxi  {gsi) 

cinctum, 

io  gird. 

dico 

dicere 

dixi 

dictum. 

to  sag. 

duco 

ducere 

duxi 

ductum. 

to  lead. 

exstinguo 

exstinguere 

exstinxi 

exstinctum,^ 

to  extinguish. 

gero 

gerere 

gessi 

gestum. 

to  carry. 

nubo 

nubere 

nupsi 

nuptum. 

to  marry. 

rego 

regere 

rexi 

rectum,^ 

to  7'ule. 

sumo 

sumere 

sumpsi 

sumptum. 

to  take. 

traho 

trahere 

traxi 

tractum. 

to  draw. 

uro 

urere 

ussi 

ustum. 

to  hum. 

veho 

vehere 

vexi 

vectum. 

to  earry. 

vivo 

vivere 

vixl 

victum. 

to  live. 

270.  Principal  Parts 

in — 0 (or  io). 

ere,  si,  sum.^ 

cedo 

cedere 

cessi 

cessum. 

to  yield. 

claudo 

claudere 

clausi 

clausum,** 

to  close. 

divido 

dividere 

divisl 

divisum. 

to  divide. 

evado 

evadere 

evasi 

evasum,^ 

to  evade. 

' figo 

figere 

fixl 

fixum. 

to  fasten. 

flecto 

flectere 

flexi 

flexum. 

to  hend. 

frendo 

frendere 

— 

j fresum,  ) 
{ fressum,  j 

to  gnash. 

laedo 

laedere 

laesi 

laesum,^ 

to  hurt. 

ludo 

ludere 

lusi 

lusum. 

to  play. 

-jnitto 

mittere 

misl 

missum. 

to  seiid. 

V- mergo 

mergere 

mersi 

mersum. 

to  dip. 

necto 

nectere 

( nexi  ) 
( nexui  ® ) 

nexum. 

to  hind. 

pecto 

pectere 

pexi 

pexum. 

to  comh. 

1 For  Phonetic  Changes.,  see  30-36. 

2 The  stem -vowel  is  often  changed  in  compounds:  carpo.,  de-cerpo ; rego.,  dl-rigo; 
for  this  change,  see  344,  4;  also  331. 

3 So  other  compounds  of  stinguo  (rare) : distinguo.,  etc. 

^ Compounds  of  claudo  have  u for  aw,  con-cludo  ; those  of  laedo.,  I for  ae,  il-lldO] 
those  oi plaudo  generally  d for  aw,  ex-plodO  ; those  ot  quatio.,  cu  for  qua.,  con-cutio. 

® So  other  compounds  of  vddo.  « Compounds  take  this  form  in  the  Perfect 


138 

CLAS8IFICA  TION 

OF  vmm 

plecto 

plectere 

plexi 

plexum, 

plausum,^ 

to  plait. 

plaudo 

plaudere 

plausi 

to  applaud. 

premo 

premere 

pressi  ^ 

pressum. 

to  press. 

quatio 

quatere 

quassi 

quassum,^ 

to  shake. 

spargo 

spargere 

sparsi 

sparsum, 

to  scatter. 

rado 

radere 

ra^ 

rasum. 

to  shave. 

rodo 

rodere 

rosi 

rosum. 

to  gnaw. 

tergo 

tergere 

tersi 

tersum,^ 

to  wipe  off. 

trudo 

trudere 

trusi 

trusum. 

to  thrust. 

271. 

Principal  Parts 

in — o (or  io), 

ere,  i,  tum. 

1. 

With  Reduplication. 

abdo 

abdere 

abdidi 

abditum,*^ 

to  hide. 

cano 

canere 

cecini 

cantum,^ 

creditum,® 

to  sing. 

credo 

credere 

credidi 

to  believe. 

disco 

discere 

didici 

to  learn. 

pango 

pangere 

pepigi 

pactum. 

to  bargain. 

pango 

pangere 

j panxi 
( pegi 

panctum,'’’  [ 
pactum,  j" 

to  fix  in. 

Xpario 

parere 

pepeiT 

partum,® 

to  bring  forth» 

sisto 

sistere 

stiti 

statum,^ 

to  place. 

tango 

tangere 

tetigi 

tactum,^® 

to  touch. 

tendo 

tendere 

tetendi 

j tentum,^®  ) 
( tensum,  ) 

to  stretch. 

^ollo 

tollere 

sustuli 

sublatum,^^ 

to  raise. 

^ vendo 
pungo 

vendere 

vendidi 

venditum,® 

pfinctum,^^ 

to  sell. 

pungere 

pupugi 

to  prick. 

2.  With 

Lengthened  Stem-Vowel. 

ago 

agere 

egi 

actum,^® 

to  drive. 

capio 

capere 

cepi 

captum,^^ 

to  take. 

emo 

emere 

emi 

emptum,^® 

to  buy. 

1 See  page  12T,  foot-note  4. 

2 See  34,  1,  note;  35,  3,  2). 

3 Also  tergeo^  tergere^  etc.;  compounds  take  this  form  ; see  365. 

^ So  all  compounds  of  do  except  those  of  Conjugation  I. ; see  359,  note  1. 

® Concino^  ere^  concinui^ ; so  occino  and  praecino;  other  compounds  want 

Perfect  and  Supine. 

® Explained  as  a compound  of  do  ; see  a~bdo. 

^ Compingo^  ere,  compegi,  compactum;  so  also  impingo.  Depango  wants  Perfect; 
repangi.  Perfect  and  Supine. 

^ Participle,  pariturus:  compounds  are  of  Conjugation  IV. 

® Compounds  thus : consisto,  ere,  constiti,  cbnstitum  ; but  circumsteti  also  occurs 

10  Compounds  drop  the  reduplication. 

11  Attollo  and  extollo  want  Perfect  and  Supine. 

12  Compounds  thus  : coonpungo,  ere,  compunxi,  compUnctum. 

13  ^0  circumago  and  perago;  wants  Perfect  and  Supine.  Other  compounds 

change  a into  i in  the  Present:  ahigo,  ere,  dbegl,  ahactum;  but  Ibecomes  ergo, 
ere,  coegl,  coCctum,  and  deigo,  d^’go,  ere,  degi,  without  Supine.  Prodigo  wants  Supine, 
and  amMgO,  Perfect  and  Supine. 

1^  So  antecapio;  other  compounds  thus  : accipio,  ere,  acclpi,  acceptum. 

1®  So  coemo ; other  compounds  thus  : adimo,  ere,  ademi,  ademptum. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


129 


facio 

facere 

feci 

factum,* 

fugitum, 

io  make. 

fugio 

fugere 

fugi 

to  flee. 

jacere 

jeci 

jactum,^ 

to  throiu. 

frango 

frangere 

fregi 

fractura,^ 

to  break. 

lego 

legere 

legi 

lectum,4 

to  read. 

linquo 

linquere 

liqui 

5 

to  leave. 

scabo 

scabere 

scabi 

— 

to  scratch. 

vinco 

vincere 

vici 

victum. 

to  conquer 

rumpo 

rumpere 

rupi 

ruptum. 

to  hurst. 

273,  Principal  Parts  in — 3 (or  i3),  ere,  i,  sum.” 


1.  With  Redcplication. 


)ado 

cadere 

cecidi 

casum,'’' 

' to  fall. 

caedo 

caedere 

cecidi 

caesum,® 

io  cut. 

curro 

currere 

cucurri 

cursum,^ 

falsum,**^ 

to  run. 

fallo 

fallere 

fefelli 

to  deceive,  „ 

parco 

parcere 

peperci  (parsi) 

parsum,^* 

pulsum, 

to  spare. 

pello 

pellere 

pepuli 

to. drive. 

pend5 

pendere 

pependi 

pensura,*^ 

to  weigh. 

posco 

poscere 

poposci 

13 

to  demand. 

tunsum, ) 
tusum,  i* 

tundo 

tundere 

tutudi  -j 

to  heat. 

2.  With  LexXgthened  Stem- Vowel. 

edo 

edere 

edi 

esum. 

to  eat. 

fodio 

fodere 

fodi 

fossum. 

to  dig. 

funde 

fundere 

fudi 

fusum. 

to  pour. 

3. 

With  Unchanged 

Stem. 

accendo 

accendere 

accendi 

accensum,*^ 

to  kindle. 

cudo 

cudere 

cudi 

cusum. 

to  forge. 

defendo 

defendere 

defendi 

defensum,*'* 

to  defend. 

1 Passive  irreg-ular:  /Z5,  Jierl^  facfus  sum;  see  294.  So  satisfacio  and  compoundii 
oi  facio  with  verbs  ; but  compounds  with  prepositions  thus  : conjicio^  conficere.^  confeci^ 
confectum;  with  regular  Passive,  conficior ^ ccnfict.,  crnfectus  mm. 

Superjacio  has  jactum  or  jectum  in  Supine : compounds  with  monosyllabic  prepo- 
sitions thus:  ahicio^  abicere.,  abj^cl.,  abjectum  ; see  page  20,  foot-note  1. 

3 Compounds  thus:  confringo.,  ere.,  confregi.,  c'nfructum. 

^ So  compounds,  except  (1)  colligo,  ere,  collegi,  collectum  ; so  deligo,  eligo,  seligo— {2) 
diligo,  ere,  dilixi,  dilectum  ; so  intellego,  n'^glego,  though  neglegi  occurs  in  the  Perfect. 

® Compounds  with  Supine  : relinquo,  ere,  reliqui,  relictum. 

® For  Phonetic  Changes,  see  30-36. 

’’  IncidO,  ere,  incidi,  incisum ; so  occido  and  recido;  other  compounds  want  Supine, 

® Compounds  thus:  concidO,  ere,  concidi,  concisum. 

^ Excurro  and  praecurro  generally  retain  the  reduplication : excucurri,  praecucu/T'- 
ri ; other  compounds  generally  drop  it. 

Refello,  ere,  refelli,  without  Supine. 

Comparco  ' ere,  comparsi,  comparsum,  also  with  e for  a:  compercD,  ere,  etc. 
Tmparco  and  reparco  want  Perfect  and  Supine. 

12  Compounds  drop  reduplication,  255,  I.,  4. 

1®  Compounds  retain  reduplication,  255,  I.,  4. 

So  other  compounds  of  the  obsolete  cando  and  fendo. 

10 


130 

OLAS&tFtCATIon  OF  VERBS. 

findo 

findere 

fidi  (findi) 

fissum. 

to  part. 

ICO 

icere 

ici 

ictum. 

to  strike. 

mando 

mandere 

mandi 

mansum. 

to  chew. 

pando 
pinso  (piso) 

pandere 

pandi 

j pinsi 
1 pinsui 

( passum,  ) 

( pansum,  j 
i pinsitum,  ) 

to  open. 

pinsere 

■<  pistum,  > 

( pinsum,  ) 

prehensum,^ 

to  pound. 

prehendo 

prehendere. 

prehendi 

to  grasp. 

scando 

scandere 

scandi 

scansum, 

to  climb. 

scindo 

scindere 

scidi 

scissum. 

to  rend. 

solvo 

solvere 

solvi 

solutum,^ 

to  loose. 

vello 

vellere 

velli  (vulsi) 

vulsum. 

to  pluck. 

verro 

verrere 

verri 

versum. 

to  brush. 

verto 

vertere 

verti 

versum,^ 

to  turn. 

viso 

visere 

visi 

visum. 

to  visit. 

volvo 

volvere 

volvi 

volutum. 

to  roll. 

Note  1. — Some  verbs  with  the  Perfect  in  si  or  i want  the 


ang“o,  ere,  anxl, 
annuo,  ere,  T,  - 
batuO,  ere,  i, 
bibo,  ere,  i, 
cong-ruo,  ere,  i, 
ingruo,  ere,  i, 
lambo,  ere,  I, 


to  squeeze, 
to  assent, 
to  beat, 
to  drink, 
to  agree, 
to  assail, 
to  lick. 


metuo,  ere,  I, 
pluo,  ere,  I,  or  pliivl, 
psallo,  ere,  i, 
sido,  ere,  i,^ 
ningo,  ere,  ninxl, 
strido,  ere,  i, 
sternuo,  ere,  i. 


Supine : 
to  fear, 
to  rain. 

to  play  the  har} 
to  sit  down, 
to  snow, 
to  creak, 
to  sneeze. 


Note  2. — Some  verbs  want  both  Perfect  and  Supine  : 


clango, 

claudo, 

fatisco, 

glisco, 


to  clang, 
to  be  lame, 
to  gape, 
to  grow. 


hisco, 

vado, 

temno, 

vergo. 


to  gape, 
to  go.^ 
to  despise.^ 
to  incline. 


Class  II. — Stem  im  a Consonant  : Perfect  in  ui. 


273.  Principal  Parts  in — 0 (or  io),  ere,  ui,  itum. 


accumbo 

accumbere 

accubui 

accubitum,’^ 

to  recline. 

alo 

alere 

alui 

j alitum,  ) 

( altum,  j 
j depsitum,  i 
( depstum,  j 

to  nourish. 

depso 

depsere 

depsui 

to  knead. 

elicio 

elicere 

elicui 

elicitum,® 

to  elicit. 

fremo 

fremere 

fremui 

fremitum. 

to  rage. 

gemo 

gemere 

gemui 

gemitum, 

to  groan. 

gigno 

gignere 

genui 

genitum. 

to  beget. 

mold 

molere 

molui 

molitum, 

to  grind. 

1 Often  written  prendo.,  prindere.,  etc. 

2 F is  here  changed  to  its  corresponding  vowel  u : solutum  for  solvtum. 

3 Compounds  of  prae.,  re.,  are  generally  deponent  in  the  Present,  Imperfect,  anC 
Future. 

^ Perfect  and  Supine  generally  supplied  from  sedeo;  hence  sedl.,  sessum.  So  in  com 
pounds. 

® See  ercido.,  370. 

® But  contemno.,  ere.,  contempsi.,  contemptum. 

So  other  compounds  of  cumbo.,  cubo;  see  cubb.,  358. 

^ Other  compounds  of  lacio  thus : allicib.  allicere.,  allexi.,  allectum. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


131 


pinso 

pinsere 

j pinsui 
j pinsi 

posui 

( pinsitum,  \ 
-<  pTstum,  > 

to  crush. 

pono 

ponere 

( pinsum,  ) 
positum. 

to  place. 

strepo 

strepere 

strepui 

strepitum. 

to  make  a noise. 

vomo 

vomere 

vomui 

vomitum. 

to  vomit. 

Note. — Compesco^  ‘to  restrain’;  excello^^  ‘to  excel’;  furo^  ‘to  rage’;  sterto^  ‘to 
snore  ’ ; and  tremo^  ‘ to  tremble,’  have  the  Perfect  in  u%  but  want  the  Supine. 


274. 

Principal  Parts 

in — 0 (or  io),  ere,  ui. 

tum. 

^ colo 

colere 

colui 

cultum. 

to  cultivate. 

^consulo 

consulere 

consului 

consultum. 

to  consult. 

occulo 

occulere 

occului 

occultum. 

to  hide. 

rapio 

rapere 

rapui 

raptum,^ 

to  snatch. 

sero 

serere 

serui 

sertum. 

to  connect. 

texo 

texere 

texui 

textum. 

to  weave. 

275.  Principal  Parts  in — 0,  ere,  sui,  sum. 

meto  metere  messui  * messum,  to  reap, 

necto  nectere  S nexi  ^ ( nexura,  to  hind. 

( nexui  ^ ’ 


Class  III. — Stem  in’  a Vowel  : Pekfect  in  vi  or  i. 

276,  The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  avi  from  a stem  in  a: 
^pasco  ^ pascere  pavl  pastum,  to  feed. 

sterno  sternere  stravi  stratum,  to  strew. 

veterasco  veterascere  veteravi  to  grow  old. 


277.  The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  evi  from  a stem  in  e : 


abolesco 

abolescere 

abolevi 

abolitum,® 

to  disappear. 

cerno 

ce'rnere 

crevi 

cretum. 

to  decide. 

cresco 

crescere 

crevi 

cretum,® 

to  grow. 

quiSsco 

quiescere 

quievi 

quietum. 

to  rest. 

sperno 

spernere 

sprevi 

spretura. 

to  spmrn. 

suesco 

suescere 

suevi 

suetum. 

to  become  accustomed. 

Note. — Sero,  serere,  sevi,  satum,’’'  to  sow. 

278.  The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  ivi  from  a stem  in  i: 


arcesso 

capesso 

cupio 

facesso 


arcessere 

capessere 

cupere 

facessere 


arcessivi 
capessivi 
cupivi 
facessivi  ) 
facessi  [ 


arcessitum, 

capessitum, 

cupitum, 

facessitum. 


to  call  for. 
to  lay  hold  of. 
to  desire. 

to  make. 


1 Other  compounds  of  cello  want  the  Perfect  and  Supine,  except  percello.,  percellere, 
perculi.,  perculsum. 

2 Compounds  thus  : corripio.,  corripere.,  corripui,  correptum. 

3 The  Perfect  in  sui  seems  to  be  a double  formation,  ^ enlarged  to  sul. 

4 The  stem  oi  pasco  is  pa.,  pas;  the  Present  Stem  adds  see;  see  251,  2. 

* So  inolesco ; but  adolesco  has  Supine  adultum ; exolesco.,  exoletum  ; obsolesco 
obsoletum. 

® IncrescJO  and  succresco  want  the  Supine. 

Compounds  thus  ; consero,  conserere,  consent,  concitum. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


m 


incSsso 

incessere  | 

incessivi  ) 
incessi  j 

to  attack. 

lacesso 

lacessere 

lacessivi 

lacessitum. 

to  provoke 

lino 

linere 

livi,  levi 

litum, 

to  smear. 

nosco 

noscere 

novi 

notum,^ 

to  know. 

peto 

petere 

petivi 

petitum, 

to  cask. 

quaero 

quaerere 

quaesivi 

quaesitum, 2 

to  seek. 

rudo 

rudere 

rudivi 

ruditum, 

to  bray. 

sapio 

sapere 

sapivi,  sapui 

— 

to  taste. 

sino 

sinere 

sivi 

situm. 

to  permit. 

tero 

terere 

trivi 

tritum. 

to  rub. 

279. 

Principal  Parts 

1 in — o,  ere,  i, 

tum. 

These  are  the  regular  endings  in  verbs  with  u-stems. 
are  examples : 

The  following 

acuo 

acuere 

acui 

acutum. 

to  sharpen. 

arguo 

arguere 

argui 

argutum. 

to  convict. 

imbuo 

imbuere 

imbui 

* imbutum, 

to  imbue. 

minuo 

minuere 

minui 

minutum, 

to  diminish. 

ruo 

ruere 

rui 

rutum, 

to  fall. 

statuo 

statuere 

statui 

statutum. 

to  place. 

tribuo 

tribuere 

tribui 

tributum, 

to  impart. 

Note.— 

-Fluo  and  struP  have  the  Perfect  m xi. 

fluo 

fluere 

fluxi  ^ 

fluxum, 

to  flow. 

struo 

struere 

struxi  3 

structum. 

to  build. 

Inceptives. 


280.  Inceptives  end  in  sco,  and  denote  the  beginning  of 
an  action. 


Note. — When  foraied  from  verbs,  they  are  called  Verbal  Inceptives.,  and 
when  formed  from  nouns  or  adjectives,  Denominative  Inceptives, 


281.  Most  Verbal  Inceptives  want  the  Supine,  but  take  the  Perfect 


of  their  primitives : 


acesco 

{aceo) 

acescere 

acui 

— 

aresco 

{areo) 

arescere 

arui 

— 

calesco 

{caleo) 

calescere 

calui 

— 

floresco 

{floreo) 

florescere 

florui 

— 

tepesco 

viresco 

{tepeo) 
{ vireo) 

tepescere 

virescere 

tepui 

virui 

to  become  sour, 
to  become  dry. 
to  become  warm, 
to  begin  to  bloom, 
to  become  warm, 
to  become  greenT 


Note. — The  following  take  the  Perfect  and  Supine  of  their  primitives : 


concupisco  {con,  cupio) 

convalesco  (con,  valeO) 

exardesco  {ex,  drdeo) 

inveterasco  {invetero) 

obdormisco  {oh,  dormio) 

revivisco  {re,  mvo) 

scisco  {scib) 


ere  concupivi 
ere  convalui 
ere  exarsi 
ere  inveteravi 
ere  obdormivi 
ere  revixi 
ere  scivi 


concupitum, 

convalitum, 

exarsum, 

inveteratum, 

obdormitum, 

revictum, 

scitum, 


to  desire, 
to  grow  strong, 
to  hum. 
to  grow  old. 
to  fall  asleep, 
to  revive, 
to  enact. 


1 So  Ignosco;  agnosco  and  cognosco  have  itum  in  Supine,  agnitum;  dignosco  and 
internosco  want  Supine. 

2 Compounds  thus : acqulrO,  ere,  acqulslvl,  acquisitum. 

® For  flug-sl,  strug-sl,  formed  not  from  n-stems,  but  from  consonant-stems. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


133 


282.  Most  Denominative  Incepti ves  want  both  Perfect  and  Supine : 


ditesco  id/ives).,  to  avow  rich. 
dulcesco  {dulcis).,  to  become  sweet. 
grandesco  {grandis).,  to  grow  large. 


mitesco  {mitis). 
mollesco  {mollis)., 
puerasco  {puer)., 


to  grow  mild, 
to  grow  soft, 
to  become  a hoy. 


Note. — The  following  have  the  Perfect  in  ui: 


crebresco 

{creber) 

ere  crebrui, 

duresco 

{durus) 

ere  durui, 

innotesco 

{in.  notus) 

ere  innotui, 

macresco 

{macer) 

ere  • macrui. 

maturesco 

{maturus) 

ere  maturui. 

obmutesco 

(ob.  mutus) 

ere  obmutui. 

recrudesco 

(re,  crudus) 

ere  recrudui, 

vilesco 

{vilis) 

ere  vilui. 

283.  Deponent  Verbs. 

amplector 

i 

amplexus  sum. 

apiscor 

i 

aptus  sum,^ 

comminiscor 

1 

commentus  sum,^ 

expergiscor 

i 

experrectus  sum. 

fatiscor 

i3 

Jruor 

■ 1 

1 fructus  sum,  ) 

1 fruitus  sum,  f 

fungor 

i 

functus  sum. 

gradior 

i 

gressus  sum,^ 

irascor 

i 

labor 

i 

lapsus  sum. 

liquor 

i 

loquor 

i 

locutus  sum. 

morior 

i (iri,  rare) 

mortuus  sum,® 
nactus  (nanctus)  sum, 

nanciscor 

i 

nascor 

i 

natus  sum,® 

nitor 

I ; 

\ nisus  sum,  ) 
j nixus  sum,  [ 

obliviscor 

i 

oblitus  sum. 

paciscor 

i 

pactus  sum. 

patior 

i 

passus  sum. 

proficiscor 

i 

profectus  sum. 

queror 

i 

questus  sum, 

reminiscor 

i 

ringor 

i 

rictus  sum. 

aequor 

i 

secutus  sum. 

ulciscor 

i 

ultus  sum, 

utor 

i 

usus  sum. 

vescor 

i 

to  become  frequent 
to  become  hard, 
to  become  known, 
to  become  lean, 
to  ripen, 
to  grow  dumb, 
to  bleed  afresh, 
to  become  worthless, 


to  embrace, 
to  obtain, 
to  devise, 
to  awake, 
to  gape. 

to  enjoy. 

to  perform, 
to  walk, 
to  be  angry, 
to  fall, 
to  melt, 
to  speak, 
to  die. 
to  obtain, 
to  be  born. 

to  strive. 

to  forget, 
to  bargain, 
to  suffer, 
to  set  out. 
to  complain, 
to  remember, 
to  growl, 
to  follow, 
to  avenge, 
to  use. 
to  eat. 


Semi-Deponent — Deponent  in  the  Perfect. 
fidere  fTsus  sum,  to  trust. 


1 Adipiscor.,  adeptus  sum  ; so  indipiscor. 

2 Com-minlscor  is  compounded  of  con.,  and  the  obsolete  minlscor ; re-minlscoi 
wants  the  Perfect. 

3 Lefetlscor.  de-f essus  sum. 

4 (’ompounds  thus : aggredior,  1.  aggressus  sum. 

6 Morior  has  future  participle  moriturus ; nascor,  ndsciturus. 


134 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 

Class  I. — Stem  in  i : Perfect  in  vi. 
284.  Principal  Parts  in — ia,  ire,  ivi,  itum. 


The  following  are  examples : 


finio 

flnlre 

finivi 

finitum, 

to  finish. 

lenio 

lenire 

lenivi 

lenitum, 

to  alleviate 

munio 

munire 

munivi 

munitum. 

to  fortify. 

punio 

punire 

punivi 

punitum, 

to  punish. 

scio 

scire 

SCIVI 

scitum. 

to  know. 

sepelio 

sepelire 

sepelivi 

sepultum,^ 

to  bury. 

sitio 

vagio 

sitire 

vagire 

sitivi 

vagivi 

— 

to  thirst, 
to  cry. 

Note  1. 

— F is  often  dropped  in  the  Perfect : audii  for  audivi 

; see  335,  1. 

Note  2. 

— Desideratives  (338,  III.) — 

except  esurio.,  ire., , 

, itum ; nup~ 

turio,,  ire.,  Ivl,,  and  parturio.,  ire.,  ivi — want  both  Perfect  and  Supine.  Also  a 

few  others 

balbutio, 

to  stammer. 

I ferocio,  to  be  fierce. 

sagio. 

to  be  wise. 

caecutio, 

to  be  blind. 

gannio,  to  bark. 

superbio, 

to  be  proud. 

ferio, 

to  strike. 

1 ineptio,  to  t^ifie. 

tussio. 

to  cough. 

Class  II. — Stem  in  c,  1, 

OR  r : Perfect  in  uI. 

285.  Principal  Parts  in — ia,  ire. 

, ui,  tum. 

amicio 

amicire 

amicui  (xi) 

amictum, 

apertum. 

to  clothe. 

aperio 

aperire 

aperui 

to  open. 

operio 

operire 

operui 

opertum. 

to  cover. 

salio 

salire 

salui  (ii) 

(saltum),® 

to  leap. 

Class  III. — Stem  in  a Consonant  : Perfect  in  sx  or  i. 

286. 

Principal  Parts  in — io,  ire 

, si,  tum. 

farcio 

farcire 

farsi  1 

fartum,*  ) 
farctum,  ) 

to  stuff. 

fulcio 

fulcire 

fulsi 

fultum. 

to  prop. 

haurio  ^ 

haurire 

hausi 

haustum,  ' 

hausum. 

to  draw. 

saepio 

saepire 

saepsi 

saeptum. 

to  hedge  in. 

sancio 

sancire 

sanxi  | 

sancitum, 

sanctum. 

( 

to  ratify. 

sarcio 

sarcire 

sarsi 

sartum. 

to  patch. 

vinci5 

vincire 

vinxi 

vinctum. 

to  hind. 

1 Supine  irregular. 

2 Compounds  thus : desilio^  Ire,  ul  {it\  {desultum). 

3 Compounds  thus : confercio^  Ire,  confer confertum. 

^ The  stem  of  haurio  is  haus.  The  Present  adds  I and  changes  s to  r between  two 
vowels.  In  hauBi  and  hausum.,  s standing  for  ss  or  st  is  not  changed. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


135 


287.  Principal  Parts  in — io,  ire,  si,  sum. 


raucio 

sentio 


raucire 

sentire 


rausi 

sensi 


rausum, 

sensum. 


Note. — The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  i .* 


compeno 

reperio 

venio 


comperire 

reperire 

venire 


comperi 

reperi 

venii 


compertum, 

repertum, 

ventum. 


288.  Deponent  Vekbs. 


1.  Regular.  . 


to  he  hoarse, 
to  feel. 


to  learn, 
to  find, 
to  come. 


blandior 

Iri 

blanditus  sum. 

to  flatter. 

largior 

Iri 

largitus  sum. 

to  bestow. 

mentior 

Iri 

mentitus  sum. 

io  lie. 

molior 

Iri 

molitus  sum. 

to  strive. 

partior 
potior  2 

Iri 

partitus  sum. 

to  divide. 

Iri 

potitus  sum. 

to  obtain. 

sortior 

Iri 

sortitus  sum. 

to  draw  lots. 

2.  Irregular. 

assentior  ^ 

Iri 

assensus  sum. 

to  assent. 

experior 

Iri 

expertus  sum. 

to  try. 

metior 

Iri 

mensus  sum. 

to  measure. 

opperior 

III 

j oppertus  sum,  ) 
( opperitus  sum,  [ 

to  await. 

ordior 

Iri 

orsus  sum. 

to  begin. 

orior 

Iri 

ortus  sum,'* 

to  rise. 

IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

289.  A few  verbs  wliicli  have  special  irregularities  are 
called  by  way  of  preeminence  Irregular  or  Anomalous 
Verbs.  They  are  sum,  edo,  fero,  volo,  fid,  ed,  qued,  and 
their  compounds. 

290.  Sum,  A am/  and  its  compounds. 

I.  The  conjugation  of  sum  has  been  already  given  (504) ; its  numerous 
compounds — ahsum'^  adsum.,  desum^  'praesum^  etc. — except  possum  and  pro- 
sum., are  conjugated  in  the  same  way. 


1 With  lengthened  stem-vowel. 

2 In  the  Present  Indicative  and  Subjunctive,  forms  of  Conjugation  III.  occur. 

3 Compounded  o^  ad  and  sentio  ; see  SST. 

Participle,  oriturus.—^Ye^mi  Indicative,  Conjugation  III.,  oreris,  oritur.  Imper- 
fect Subjunctive,  orirer  ov  or erer. — So  compounds,  hut  adorior  follows  Conjugation  IV. 

® Absum  and  praesum,  like  possum,  have  Present  Participles,  absens  and  praesens, 
used  as  adjectives,  absent,  present. 


136 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

II.  Possum,  posse,  potul,  to  loe  able. 


SINGULAR. 

Pres,  possum,  potes,  potest ; 
Imp.  poteram ; ^ 

Fut.  potero ; 

Perf.  potul; 

Plup.  potueram ; 

F.  P.  potuero ; 


PLURAL. 

possumus,  potestis,  possunt, 

poteramus. 

poterimus. 

potuimus. 

potueramus. 

potuerimus. 


Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


Pres.  possim,  possis,  possit ; 
Imp.  pOssem ; 

Pei'f.  potuerim ; 

Plup.  potuissem ; 

Infinitive. 


possimus,  possitis,  possint. 

possemus. 

potuerimus. 

potuissemus. 

Participle. 


Pres,  posse.  Pres,  potens  (as  an  adjective). 

Perf.  potuisse. 


Note  1. — Possum  is  compounded  of  potis^  ‘able,’  and  sum.,  ‘to  be.’  The  parts  are 
sometimes  separated,  and  then  potls  is  indeclinable : jjotis  sum.,  potis  sumus.,  etc. 

Note  2. — In  possum  observe — 2 

1)  potis  drops  is.,  and  that  Hs  assimilated  before  s:  possum  iov  potsum. 

2)  That  the  Perfect  is  potul  potful. 

,j  3)  'IhdX  posse  2iJi^pos8em  are  shortened  forms  for  potesse  potessem. 

j III.  Prosum.,  ‘ I profit,’  is  compounded  of  pro.,  prod,  ‘ for,’  and  sum,  ‘ to 
be.’  It  retains  d when  the  simple  verb'  begins  with  e : prosum,  prodes, 
prodest,  etc.  Otherwise  it  is  conjugated  like  sum. 

291.  Edo,  edere,  edi,  esum,  to  eat. 


This  verb  is  sometimes  regular,  and  sometimes  takes  forms  similar. 


except  in  quantity," 

' to  those  of  sum  which  begin  in  es. 

Thus— 

Indicative. 

Pres. 

( edo,  * 

edis, 

edit ; edimus. 

editis. 

edunt. 

( 

es,3 

est ; 

estis. 

Subjunctive. 

Imp. 

j cderem. 

ederes. 

ederet ; ederemus. 

ederetis. 

ederent. 

f essein. 

esses. 

esset ; essemus. 

essetis. 

essent. 

1 Inflected  reg’ularly  through  the  different  persons  ; poteram^  poteras,  poterat,  etc. 
So  also  in  the  other  tenses  : potul,  potuisti,  etc. 

2 For  old  and  rare  forms,  see  304,  2.  Potul  is  probably  a regular  perfect  in  ul 
from  an  obsolete  vevh  poteo  ot  potio  ; see  363,  385  ; also  Stolz,  p.  225. 

3 These  forms  have  e long  before  s,  while  the  corresponding  forms  of  sum  have  e short. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


137 


ede ; x 

Imperative. 

edite. 

esf 

este. 

edito ; 

editote. 

edunto. 

esto ; 

estote. 

Infinitive. 

edere. 

esse. 

Note  1.— In  the  Passive,  estur  for  editur  and  essetur  for  ede/retur  also  occur. 

Note  2. — Fokms  in  tm  for  am  occur  in  the  Present  Subjunctive : edim.,  edls^  edit., 
etc.,  for  edam.,  edus.,  edat.,  etc. 

Note  3. — Compounds  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  comedo  has  in  the  Su 
pine  comesum  or  comestum. 


292.  Fero, 


ferre, 


tuli. 


latum. 


to  ’bear. 


SINGULAR. 

Pres,  fero,  fers,  fert ; 
Bmp.  ferebam ; ^ 

Fut.  feram ; 

Perf.  tuli; 

Plup.  tuleram ; 

F.  P.  tulero ; 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 
Indicative. 


PLURAL. 

ferimus,  fertis, ^ ferunt. 

ferebamus. 

feremus. 

tulimus. 

tuleramus. 

tulerimus. 


Pres.  feram ; 
Imp.  ferrem ; 
Perf.  tulerim ; 
Plup.  tulissem ; 


Subjunctive. 


feramus. 

ferremus.^ 

tulerimus. 

tulissemus. 


Pres.  fer ; ® 
Fut.  ferto, 
ferto ; 


Imperative. 


ferte. 

fertote, 

ferunto. 


Infinitive. 

Pres.  ferre.'^ 

Perf.  tulisse. 

Fut.  laturus  esse. 


Participle. 

Pres.  ferens. 

Fut.  laturus. 


1 See  page  136,  foot-note  2. 

2 Fer-s,  f^r-t.,  fer-tis,  like  es-t.,  es-tis,  dispense  with  the  usual  thematic  vowel  i. 
With  such  vowel  the  forms  would  be  feris,  ferit,  feritis. 

Inflect  the  several  tenses  in  full : ferebam,  ferebas,  etc. 

4 Ferrem,  etc.,  fov  fer  erem,  etc. ; ferre  fer  er  e {e  dropped). 

® Fe/r  iov  fere  f ferto.,  ferte,  fertote,  ferris,  fertur,  without  thematic  vowel. 


138 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


Gerund. 

Gen.  ferendi, 
Dat.  ferendo, 
Acc.  ferendum, 
Adi.  ferendo. 


Supine. 


Aoe.  latum, 
Adi.  latu. 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 


feror,  ferri,  latus  sum. 


to  de  dome. 


Indicative. 

SINGULAR. 

Pres,  feror,  ferris,  fertur;^ 

Imp.  ferebar ; 

Fut.  ferar ; 

Per/,  latus  sum ; 

Plup.  latus  eram ; 

F.  P.  latus  ero ; 


PLURAL. 

ferimur,  ferimini,  feruntur 

ferebamur. 

feremur. 

lati  sumus. 

lati  eramus. 

lati  erimus. 


„ , Subjunctive. 

Pres.  ferar; 

Imp.  ferrer ; ^ 

Perf.  latus  sim ; 

Plup.  latus  essem ; 


feramur, 
ferremur, 
lati  simus, 
lati  essemus. 


Pres.  ferre 
Fut.  fertor,^ 
fertor ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres.  ferri.  ^ 
Perf.  latus  esse. 
Fut.  latum  iri. 


Imperative.  . . . . 

ferimini. 

feruntor. 

Participle. 

Perf.  latus. 
Ger.  ferendus. 


1.  Fero  bas  two  principal  irregularities ; 

1)  Its  forms  are  derived  from  three  independent  stems,  seen  in  fero.,  tvU^ 
latum. 

2)  It  dispenses  with  the  thematic  vowel,  e or  before  r,  5,  and  t. 

2.  Compounds  of  fero  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  in  a few  at 
them  the  preposition  sutlers  a euphonic  change : 


ab~ 

aufero 

auferre 

abstuli 

ablatum 

ad- 

adfero 

adferre 

attuli 

allatum 

con- 

confero 

conferre 

contuli 

collatum 

dis- 

differo 

differre 

distuli 

dilatum 

ex- 

effero 

efferre 

extuli 

elatum 

in- 

infero 

inferre 

intuli 

illatum 

od- 

offero 

offerre 

obtuli 

oblatum 

siid- 

suffero 

sufferre 

sustuli 

sublatum 

^ Without  thematic  vowel. 


IRREGULAR  VERRS. 


139 


Note. — Sustuli  and 
tljey  supply  the  Perfect 

V 293.  Yolo, 

^ /5^olo, 

^ Malo, 


sublatum  are  not  often  used  in  the  sense  of  suffero^  to  bear,  but 
and  Supine  of  tollO^  to  raise ; see  871. 


Pres,  volens. 


velle,  volui, 

nolle, . nolui, 

malle,  malui. 

Indicative. 


to  he  willing, 
to  he  unwilling, 
to  prefer. 


PreSo  volo. 

nolo. 

malo. 

vis. 

non  vis. 

mavis. 

vult ; 

non  vult ; 

mavult ; 

volumus. 

nolumus, 

malumus. 

vultis, 

non  vultis, 

mavultis, 

volunt. 

nolunt. 

malunt. 

Imp.  volebam. 

nolebam. 

malebam. 

Fut.  volam. 

'^olam. 

malam. 

Perf.  volui. 

nolui. 

malui. 

Plup.  volueram. 

nolueram. 

malueram. 

F.  P.  voluero. 

noluero. 

Subjunctive. 

maluero. 

Pres,  velim.' 

nolim. 

malim. 

Imp.  vellem.^ 

nollem. 

mallem. 

Perf.  voluerim. 

noluerim. 

maluerim. 

Plup.  voluissem. 

noluissem. 

Imperative. 

Pres.  noli,  nolite. 

Fut.  nolito,  nolitote, 

nolito ; nolunto. 

Infinitive. 

maluissem. 

Pres,  velle. 

1 nolle. 

1 malle. 

Perf.  voluisse. 

1 noluisse. 

1 maluisse. 

Participle. 

nolens. 


Note  1. — The  stem  of  volh  is  with  variable  stem-vowel,  o,  e,  u. 
^(Note  2. — Nolo  is  compounded  of  ne  or  non  and  volb  ; malo,  of  magU 
and  volb. 

Note  3. — Rare  Forms. — (1)  Of  volO:  volt.,  voltis.,  for  vult,  vultis ; sis, 
mltis,  for  si  vis,  si  vultis  ; vln^  for  vlsne. — (2)  Of  nolo  : nevls,  nevult  {nevolt), 

1 Velim  is  inflected  like  sim,  and  vellem  like  essem. 

Yeilem  and  velle  are  syncopated  forms  for  veler em,  veler e;  e is  dropped  and  r 
assimilated:  velereAn,  velr&m.^  vellem;  velere,  velre,  velle.  So  nollem  and  nolle.,  for 
nblerem  and  nblere;  mdllem  and  mdlle,  for  mdlerem  and  mdlere. 


140 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


nevelle^  for  non  {ne)  vls^  non  {ne)  vult^  nolle. — (3)  Of  malo  : mdvolo^  md/oelim^ 
mdvellem.,  for  ma/o,  mdlim^  mallem. 


^ 294.  Fio,  fieri, 

factus  sum. 

to  l)ecome^  l)e  made.  ^ 

Indicative. 

PLURAL. 

SINGULAR, 

Free,  fio,  fis,  fit ; 

fimus,  fitis,  fiunt. 

Imp.  fiebam ; 

flebamus. 

Fut.  flam ; 

fiemus. 

Perf.  factus  sum ; 

facti  sumus. 

Plup.  factus  eram ; 

facti  eramus. 

F.  P.  factus  ero ; 

facti  erimus. 

Pres,  fiam; 

Subjunctive. 

fiamus. 

Imp.  fierem ; 

fieremus. 

Perf.  factus  sim ; 

facti  simus. 

Plup.  factus  essem 

facti  essemus. 

Imperative. 

fite. 

Pres,  fi; 

Infinitive. 

Participle. 

Pres,  fieri. 

Perf.  factus  esse. 

Per/,  factus. 

Fut.  factum  iri. 

Ger.  faciendus. 

295.  Eo,  ire, 

ivi,  itum,  to  go. 

Indicative. 

imus,  itis,  eunt. 

Pres.  eo,  is,  it ; 

Imp.  ibam ; 

ibamus. 

^ Fut.  ibo ; 

ibimus. 

Per/,  ivi; 

ivimus. 

Plup.  iveram ; 

Iveramus. 

F.  P.  ivero ; 

iverimus. 

Pres.  eam; 

Subjunctive. 

eamus. 

Imp.  irem ; 

iremus. 

Perf.  iverim ; 

iverimus. 

Plup.  ivissem ; 

ivissemus. 

Imperative. 

ite. 

Pres.  i; 

Fut.  ito. 

itote, 

ito ; 

eunto. 

^ Compounds  of /io  are  conjugated  like  tlie  simple  verb,  but  confit.,  defit,  and  Infit 
are  defective;  see  397,  III.,  2. 

DEFECTIVE  VERBS, 


141 


Infinitive. 
Pres.  Ire. 

Perf.  Ivisse. 

Fut.  iturus  esse. 


Participle. 

Pres,  iens,  Ge^i.  euntis. 
Fut.  iturus. 


Gerund. 


Supine. 


Gen.  eundl, 

Dai.  eundo, 

Ace.  eundum,  Ace.  itum, 

Ahl.  eundo.  Ahl.  itu. 

1.  A(5  is  a verb  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation,  but  it  forms  the  Supine  with  a short  vowel 
{iium)^  and  is  irregular  in  several  parts  of  the  Present  System.  It  admits  contraction 
according  to  235  : isiis  for  Ivistis,  etc. 

2.  Eo,  as  an  intransitive  verb,  wants  the  Passive,  except  when  used  impersonally  in 
the  third  singular,  itur,  ibdtv/r,  etc.  (301, 1),  but  In,  the  Passive  Infinitive,  occurs  as  an 
auxiliary  in  the  Future  Infinitive  Passive  of  the  regular  conjugations : amdtmn  iri,  etc. 

8.  Compounds  of  eO  generally  shorten  ivl  into  ii.  VeneO  {venum  eo)  has  sometimes 
veniebam  for  venibam.  Many  compounds  want  the  Supine,  and  a few  admit  in  the 
Future  a rare  form  in  earn,  ies,  iet. 

-"“■^OTE  1. — Transitive  compounds  have  the  Passive:  adeo,  to  approach;  adeor,  etc. 

Note  ‘1.— Ambio  is  regular,  like  audio^  though  amblbam  for  ambiebam  occurs. 

296.  Queb.^  quire qulvl^  quitum.,  to  be  able,  and  nequeb.,  nequire.,  nequivi, 
(n),  nequitum.,  to  be  unable,  are  conjugated  like  ed,  but  they  want  the  Im- 
perative and  Gerund,  and  are  rare  except  in  the  Present  tense. ^ 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

297.  Defective  Verbs  want  certain  parts, 
the  most  important : ^ 

I.  Present  System  wanting. 
Memini,  I remember. 


CoepI,  I hare  begun. 

Perf.  coepl. 

Plup.  coeperam. 

F.  P.  coepero. 

Perf.  coeperim. 
Plup.  coepissem. 


Indicative. 

memini. 

memineram. 

meminero. 

Subjunctive. 

I meminerim. 

I meminissem. 

Imperative. 

I Sing,  memento. 

I Plur.  mementote. 


The  following  are 


Odi,  I hate. 

odi. 

oderam. 

odero. 

oderim. 

odissem. 


1 A Passive  form,  quitur,  nequitur,  etc.,  occurs  before  a Passive  Infinitive. 

2 For  many  verbs  which  want  the  Perfect  or  Supine,  or  both,  see  262-284. 


143  DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

Infinitive. 

Perf.  coepisse. 

1 meminisse.  j 

odisse. 

Fut.  coepturus  esse. 

Participle. 

osurus  esse. 

Perf.  coeptus. 

1 1 

osus.i 

Fut.  coepturus. 

i 1 

osurus. 

1.  With  Passive  Infinitives,  generally  takes  the  Passive  form : coeptus  sum^ 
eram,  etc.  Coeptus  is  Passive  in  sense. 

2.  Memini  and  bdl  are  Present  in  sense ; hence  in  the  Pluperfect  and  Future  Perfect 
they  have  the  sense  of  the  Imperfect  and  Future.  Nbm^  ‘ I know,’  Perfect  oinbsco^  ‘to 
learn,’  and  ebnsuem^  ‘ 1 am  wont,’  Perfect  of  consuesco^  ‘ to  accustom  one’s  self,’  are  also 
Present  in  sense. 


II.  Parts  of  each  System  wantikg. 


1.  Aio,  I say,  say  yes.^  • 


Indie. 

Pres,  aio. 

ais,3 

ait; 

Imp.  aiebam. 

-ebas. 

-ebat 

Perf.  

ait ; 

Subj. 

Pres.  

aias, 

aiat; 

Imper.  Pres,  ai  {rare). 
Part.  Pres,  aiens. 


aiunt. 

-ebamus,  -ebatis,  -ebant.'» 


aiant. 


2.  Inquam,  Isay. 


Indie.  Pres,  inquam, 

Imp.  

Put.  


Perf. 

Imper.  Pres,  inque. 


inquis,  inquit ; 

inquiebat ; 

inquies,  inquiet; 
in  quisti,  inquit ; 
Fut.  inquito. 


inquimus. 


inquitis,  inquiunt. 


3.  Fari,  to  speah.  ^ 


Indic.  Pres. 

Fut.  fabor,  

Perf.  fatus  sum,  es, 

Plup.  fatus  eram,  eras, 
Suhj.  Perf.  fatus  sim,  sis, 

Plup.  fatus  essem,  esses, 
Imper.  Pres.  fare. 

Infin.  Pres.  fari. 

Part.  Pres.  (fans)  fantis. 

Gerund.,  Gen.  and  Ahl.  fandi,  do. 


fatur ; 
fabitur ; 

fati  sumus,  estis. 

sunt. 

est ; 

erat ; 

fati  eramus,  eratis, 

erant. 

sit ; 

fati  simus,  sitis. 

sint. 

esset; 

fati  essemus,  essetis, 

essent. 

Perf.  fatus.  Ger.  fandus. 
Supine.^  Abl.  fatu. 


^ Osus  is  Active  in  sense,  hating.,  hut  is  rare  except  in  compounds:  exbsus.,  perosus. 

2 In  this  verb  a and  i do  not  form  a diphthong ; before  a vowel  the  i has  the  sound 
oiy:  d-yo,  d-yunt;  see  10,  4,  8). 

3 The  interrogative  form  aisne  is  often  shortened  into  carC. 

♦ Aibam.,  alhds,  etc.,  occur;  also  inquibat  for  inquiebat. 

® Fdrl  is  used  chiefly  in  poetry.  Compounds  have  some  forms  not  found  in  the 
pimple:  adfdmiur^  adfdminl^  adfdbar;  effdberis. 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 


143 


III.  Imperatives  and  Isolated  Forms. 


1.  Imperatives. 

have,  havete ; 

salve,  salvete, 

cedo,  cette, 

apage. 


haveto ; Inf.  havere,i  hail. 

salveto ; salvere,  hail. 


tell  me,  give  me. 


hegone. 


2.  Isolated  Forms. 


Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


confit ; 

defit, 

infit. 


Present. 


defitmt ; deflet ; 
infiunt,  


Future. 


Present.  Imperfect. 
confiat ; confieret ; 
defiat ; 


Infinitive. 
confieri,  to  be  done. 
defieri,  to  he  wanting. 


Ind.  Pres,  ovat, 


Sub.  Imp.  forem,  fores,  foret,  


he  rejoices. 


forent. 


Inf.  fore.  3 
Part,  ovans. 


Ind.  Pres,  quaeso,  quaesumus, ^ I pray. 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 


298.  Impersonal  Verbs  correspond  to  the  English  Impersonal 
with  it:  licet.,  it  is  lawful;  oportet^  it  behooves.^  They  are  conju- 
gated like  other  verbs,  but  are  used  only  in  the  third  person  singu- 
lar of  the  Indicative  and  Subjunctive,  and  in  the  Present  and  Per- 
fect Infinitive. 

299.  The  most  important  Impersonal  Verbs  are — 


1.  Participles  are  generally  wanting,  but  a few  occur,  though  with  a somewhat 
modified  sense:  (1)  from  libet:  libms,  willing;  (2)  from  licet:  licens.,  free;  licitus., 
allowed;  (3)  from  paenitet:  paeniUns,  penitent;  paenitendus.,  to  be  repented  of;  (4) 
from  PUDET : pudens,  modest ; pudendus,  shameful. 

2.  Gerunds  are  generally  wanting,  but  occur  in  rare  instances : paenitendum,  pu- 
dendo. 

1 Also  written  avete,  etc. 

2 The  Future  salvebis  is  also  used  for  the  Imperative. 

3 Forem  = essem;  fore  = futurum  esse;  see  304,  2. 

^ Old  forms  for  quaero  and  quaerimus. 

s The  subject  is  generally  an  infinitive  or  clause,  but  may  be  a noun  or  pronoun  de 
noting  a thing,  but  not  a person : hoc  fieri  oportet,  that  this  should  be  done  is  necessary 

® These  four  occur  in  the  third  person  plural,  but  without  Si. personal  subject. 

Me  miseret,  I pity ; me  paenitet,  I repent. 

^ Also  the  compound,  pertaedet,  pertaesum  est,  it  greatly  wearies. 


144 


PARTICLES. 


300.  Generally  Impersonal  are  several  verbs  which  designate 
the  changes  of  the  weather,  or  the  operations  of  nature  : 

Fulminat.^  it  lightens  ; grandinat^  it  hails  ; lucescit^  it  grows  light ; pluit., 
it  rains  ; rorat.,  dew  falls  ; tonat.^  it  thunders. 

301.  Many  other  verbs  are  often  used  impersonally  : 

Accidit^  it  happens  ; apparet.,  it  appears  ; constat.,  it  is  evident ; contingit., 
it  happens ; delectat^  it  delights  ; dolet^  it  grieves ; interest.,  it  concerns ; juvat^ 
it  delights  ; patei.,  it  is  plain  ; placet.,  it  pleases.;  praestat.,  it  is  better ; refert^ 
it  concerns. 

1.  In  the  Passive  Voice  intransitive  verbs  can  be  used  only  impersonally.  The  par- 
ticiple is  then  neuter : 

Mihl  creditur.,  it  is  credited  to  me,  I am  believed ; Uhl  creditur.,  you  are  believed ; 
creditum  esU  it  was  believed ; certatur.,  it  is  contended;  curritur.,  there  is  running,  peo 
pie  run;  pugnatur.,  it  is  fought,  they,  we,  etc.,  fight;  mvitur.,  we,  you,  they  live. 

2.  The  Passive  Peripukastic  Conjugation  (234)  is  often  used  impersonally.  The 
participle  is  then  neuter: 

Mihl  scribendum  est.,  I must  write ; tibi  scribendum  est.,  you  must  write ; illA  .•icrl-' 
bendum  est.,  he  must  write. 

CHAPTER  V. 

PARTICLES. 

302.  The  Latin  has  four  parts  of  speech  sometimes  called 
Particles : the  Advert),  the  Preposition,  the  Conjunction,  and  the  In- 
terjection. 

ADVERBS. 

303.  The  Adverb  is  the  part  of  s]3eech  which  is  used  to  qual- 
ify verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs:  celeriter  currere,  to  run 
swiftly ; tarn  celer,  so  swift ; tarn  celeriter,  so  swiftly. 

304.  In  their  origin,  Adverbs  are.  mainly  the  oblique  cases  ^ ot 
nouns,  adjectives,  participles,  and  pronouns. 

I.  Accusatives. — Many  Adverbs  were  originally  Accusatives  : 

1.  Accusatives  of  Nouns:  partim.,  partly ; out  of  doors;  diu^  (for 
dium^).,  for  a long  time.  Here  belong  numerous  adverbs  in  tim  and  sim, 
chiefly  from  verbal  nouns  ^ no  longer  in  use  : ^ contemptim^  contemptuously ; 

^ Some,  indeed,  are  the  oblique  cases  of  words  not  otherwise  used  in  Latin,  and  some 
are  formed  by  means  of  case-endings  no  longer  used  in  the  regular  declensions. 

2 Accusative  of  dius  = dies. 

3 Some  adverbs  in  tim  and  sim  are  from  adjectives : singuldtim.,  one  by  one.  In 
time  doubtless  tim,  dtim„  sim,  and  im  came  to  be  regarded  simply  as  adverbial  suflSxes, 
and  were  so  used  in  forming  new  adverbs. 


ADVERBS. 


145 


8endm^  perceptibly,  slowly;  raptim^  hastily;  statim^  steadily;  furtim^  by 
stealth. 

2.  Accusatives  of  Nouns  with  Prepositions  : ad-^odum^  very,  to  the  full 
measure  ; in-mcem^  in  turn ; in-cassum^  in  vain ; oh-iter^  on  the  road,  in  pass- 
ing ; ob-viam^  in  the  way,  against ; post-modum^  after  a short  time ; inter- 
diu^  and  inter-dius^^  during  the  day;  inter-dum^^  during  the  time,  in  the 
mean  time. 

3.  Accusatives  of  Adjectives; 

1)  Neuters  in  um^  a,  e,  -W5,  is : sdlum^  only ; multum.^  mUlta^  much ; nim^ 
ww,  too  much ; parum.,  little  ; secundum.,  secondly  ; ceterum.,'^  cetera.,  as  to  the 
rest ; rerum^  truly ; abunde.,^  abundantly ; facile.,  easily  ; saepe.,^  often  ; plus., 
more ; minus.,  less ; saepius.,  more  frequently ; magis.,  more,  rather. ^ 

2)  Feminines  in  am.,  as : bifariam.,^  in  two  parts ; multifariam.,  in  many 
parts  ; dam  = calam.,  secretly  ; palam.,  openly ; perperam.,  wrongly  ; alias., 
otherwise. 

4.  Accusatives  of  Pronouns:  guam^  how  much;  tam^  so  much;  turn., 
then ; tun-c.,  at  that  time ; nun-c.,  now. 

II.  Ablatives. — Many  Adverbs  were  originally  Ablatives  : 

1.  Ablatives  of  Nouns  in  u,  e.  Is:  ergo.,  accordingly ; ^ numero.,  exactly; 
forte.,  by  chance  ; jure.,  rightly ; sponte.,  willingly ; grdtils.,  or  gratis.,  gratui- 
tously ; foris.,  out  of  doors. 

Note. — The  ablative  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  a preposition  or  by  an  adjective; 
ex-templo.,  immediately — lit.,  from  the  moment;  llico  for  in  loco,  on  the  spot;  quot- 
annis, yearly;  muUi-modls,  in  many  ways;  ho-die  (J^oc-die),  to-day;  qud-re,  where- 
fore, by  which  thing. 

2.  Ablatives  of  Adjectives  and  Participles  in  a.,  Feminine,  d,  e,^  and 
Neuter  : dextra  = dextera.,  on  the  right ; extra  on  the  outside ; Infra  on 
the  under  side ; intrd,  on  the  inside  ; — intro.,  within  ; ultrd.,  beyond ; perpetuo., 
continually ; mrd,  rarely ; subito.,  suddenly ; auspicato.,  after  taking  the  aus- 

1 Diu  and  dum  are  explained  as  forms  of  dium  — diem,  and  dius  as  for  dies;  see 
Corssen,  I.,  pp,  232-236;  II.,  458. 

2 Often  becoming  conjunctions — ceterum,  but.  Non,  from  ne-unum,  also  belongs 
here. 

3 From  obsolete  abundis. 

4 Here  may  be  added  semel,  ‘ once,’  and  simul,  ‘ at  the  same  time,’  both  for  simile. 

® Secus,  ‘otherwise’;  tenus,  ‘as  far  as’;  protinus,  ‘straightforward’;  and  versus, 
' toward,’  doubtless  belong  here. 

® Originally  partem  or  viam  may  have  been  used. 

Quam,  from  stem  qua,  in  qul,  quae;  tarn,  turn,  from  stem  ta,  to,  in  the  final  syl- 
able  of  iste,  for  is-tu-s,  is-ta;  tun-c  = tum-ce,  nun-c  — num-ce,  in  which  num  is  from 
the  stem  no,  seen  also  in  num,  ‘ whether,’  and  also  in  its  original  form,  na,  in  nam,  ‘for.’ 

® Literally,  by  the  deed.  Compare  Greek  epyov,  epy<u. 

® That  e is  here  an  ablative  ending  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  it  appears  in  early  Latin 
in  the  form  of  ed,  an  undoubted  ablative  ending. 

With  these  feminines,  parte  or  via  may  have  been  originally  used. 

Often  becoming  prepositions.  In  fact,  all  prepositions  in  d are  derived  from  adverbs 
wiiich  were  originally  ablatives  in  dd,  afterward  a. 

11 


146 


ADVERBS, 


pices ; consulto,,  after  deliberating ; sortito,,  by  lot,  i.  e. , after  casting  lots  ; — 
docte,,  learnedly  ; Where,,  freely  ; certe,^  surely  ; recte,,  rightly  ; rere,,  truly ; — 
doctissime,,  most  skillfully  ; mdxime^  especially  ; — brem-,,  briefly. 

3.  Ablatives  of  Pronouns  : ed,,  there,  in  that  way  ; hdc,,  here,  in  this  way ; 
qua,  where,  in  which  way  ; eddem,  by  the  same  road,  in  the  same  way. 

Note. — Several  pronominal  adverbs  denote  direction  toward  a point:  ed,  to  that 
place;  hoc,  hue,  to  this  place illd,  illd-c,  illu-c,  to  that  place;  istd,  isto-c,  istu-c,  to 
the  place  where  you  are ; quo,  to  which  place. 

III.  Locatives. — Some  Adverbs  were  originally  Locatives : 

1.  Locatives  of  Nouns  and  Adjectives  in  ^ or  e .*  he^n,  yesterday ; tem<- 
feri,  in  time  ; vesperi,  in  the  evening  ; peregrl,  ox  peregre,  in  a foreign  land.  ■ 

2.  Locatives  of  Pronouns  ; hlc,^  here ; illic,^^  there  ; istlc,  there  where  you 
are  ; sic,  in  this  way,  thus  ; utl,^  ut,  in  which  way  ; ihi,^  there  ; ubi,  where. 

Note. — Locative  forms  in  im  also  occur : dlim,  formerly  ; utrim-que,  on 
both  sides  ; illim,  illin-c,  from  that  place  ; hin^c,  from  this  place  ; often  with 
de : utrin-de,  from  both  sides  ; in-de,  from  that  point,  thence. 

lY.  Adverbs  in  tus  and  ter. — Adverbs  are  also  formed  by  means  of 
the  endings  tus  and  ter : 

Fundi-tus,  from  the  foundation ; rddlci-tus,  from  the  roots,  utterly ; divini- 
tus, by  divine  appointment,  divinely  ; forti-ter,  bravely  ; dcri-ter,  sharply  ; 
duri-ter,  harshly  ; elegan-ter,  elegantly  ; aman-ter,  lovingly  ; pruden-ter,  pru- 
dently. 

Note  1. — The  stem-vowel  before  tus  becomes  i,  and  consonant  stems  as- 
sume i : fundi-tusp  rddlc-i-tus.  The  stem-vowel  before  ter  also  becomes 
i : duri-ter,^  Consonant  stems,  however,  do  not  assume  i,  but  drop  flnal  t : 
amanUter,  aman^der. 

Note  2. — Many  adverbs  are  simply  adverbial  phrases  or  clauses  whose 
parts  have  become  united  in  writing.  In  these  compound  forms  prepositions 

1 As  e is  an  ablative  ending,  cenetd  and  certe  are  only  different  forms  of  the  same 
word ; so  also  reetd  and  recte,  verd  and  vere,  though  the  two  forms  do  not  always  have 
precisely  the  same  meaning:  verd,  in  truth;  vere,  truly. 

2 This  is  the  regular  ending  in  superlatives. 

3 These  are  sometimes  explained  as  Datives,  but  they  are  probably  Ablatives;  illd, 
lit.,  by  that  way  or  road,  finally  came  to  mean  to  that  place,  i.  e.,  to  the  place  to  which 
the  road  leads. 

4 Here  the  Locative  ending  is  I : hi,  illl,  istl,  si ; c for  ce  is  a demonstrative  ending, 
meaning  he7''e.  Sic  is  the  Locative  of  sa;  see  313,  foot-note. 

5 Utl  contains  two  stems — u or  cu  (seen  in  cui),  and  ta  or  to  (seen  in  te  in  is-te), 

® In  ihl  and  uhl  the  ending  is  hi ; i in  ih%  is  the  stem  of  is,  he ; um  uhi  is  the  same 
as  in  utl. 

7 Seen  also  in  in-ter,  in  the  midst;  in-tus,  within;  suh-ter  and  suh-tus,  below. 
These  suffixes  are  of  uncertain  origin ; the  former  appears  to  be  a case-suffix  with  abla- 
tive meaning,  no  longer  used  in.declension;  the  latter,  like  ter  in  al-ter,  nos-ter,  and  dex- 
ter, has  lost  its  case-suffix,  and  may  therefore  represent  either  terd  with  an  ablative  suffix, 
or  te/rum  with  an  accusative  suffix.  See  Corssen,  II.,  p.  299;  Kiihner,  I.,  p.  679. 

® The  stem-vowel  o is  changed  to  i. 


ADVERBS, 


147 


are  especially  common,  and  sometimes  seem  to  be  used  with  cases  with  which 
they  do  not  otherwise  occur : aiit-ed^  before,  before  that ; inter-ed^  in  the 
mean  time  ; post-ed^  after ; ante-hdc^^  before  this ; quem-ad-modum^  in  what 
manner ; parum-per^  for  a while  ; nu-per—  novum-per^  lately  ; tantls-per^  for 
so  long  a time  ; HdUicet  = videre  licet ^ clearly — lit. , ‘ it  is  permitted  to  see  ’ ; 
scilicet  = scire  licet ^ certainly  ; forsitan  = fors  sit  an^  perhaps. 

305.  Many  Pronominal  Adverbs,  like  the  pronouns  from  which 
they  are  formed  (191),  are  correlatives  of  each  other,  as  will  be  seen 
in  the  following 

Table  of  Correlatives. 


Interrogative. 

Indefinite. 

1 Demonstrative. 

I Eelative. 

1.  Place  in  which. 

ubl,  where? 2 

alicubi,  somewhere  ; 
uspiam,  usquam,  any- 
where ; ubivis,  where 
you  please. 

hlc,  here  ; 3 istlc, 
there  ; illic,  there ; 
ibi,  there. 

iibi,  where. 

ll.  Place  to  which. 

quo,  whither? 

quorsum,^  to 
what  place  ? 
to  what  end  ? 

aliquo,  to  some  place  ; 
quolibet,  quovis,  whith- 
er you  please. 

aliqud-vorsum,^  to 
some  place. 

hue,  to  this  place ; 3 
istuc,  to  that  place  ; 
illuc,  to  that  place; 
ed,  to  that  place ; 
eodem,  to  the  same 
place. 

hdrsum,^  to  this 
place. 

quo,  whither. 

quorsum,  to 
which  place  or 
end. 

III.  Place  from  which. 

unde,  whence? 

alicunde,  from  some 
place ; undelibet,  from 
any  place. 

hinc,  from  this  place ; 
istinc,  from  that 
place ; illinc,  from 
that  place ; inde, 
from  that  place. 

unde,  whence. 

1 Some  scholars,  regarding  ed.  and  hdc  in  these  and  similar  cases  as  ablatives,  think 
that  all  such  compounds  had  their  origin  at  a time  when  ante^  post,  inter,  etc.,  admitted 
that  case ; but  Corssen  treats  ed  and  hdc  in  all  such  cases  as  neuters  in  the  accusative 
plural.  See  Corssen,  II.,  p.  455;  Bucheler,  p.  82. 

2 Observe  that  the  question  uVi,  ‘where?’  maybe  answered  indefinitely  alicu- 
bi, uspiam,  etc.,  or  definitely  by  a demonstrative  either  alone  or  with  a relative : hlc, 
‘ here  ’ ; hie,  ubl,  ‘ here,  where.’ 

® Hlc,  ‘here,’  ‘near  me’;  istlc,  ‘there,’  ‘near  you’;  illic,  ‘there,’  ‘near  him’;  ibl, 
’there,’  a weak  demonstrative  and  the  most  common  correlative  of  ubl,  ‘where.’  See 
distinction  in  pronouns  (191).  A similar  distinction  exists  in  hue,  istde,  illuc,  and  ed. 

* For  que-vorsum  = qiM-versum,  ‘whither  turned’;  aliqud-vorsum,  huc-vorsum. 


148 


ADVERBS, 


Table  op  Correlatives. — {Continued.) 


Interrogative. 

Indefinite. 

Demonstrative. 

: 1 

Eelativb. 

IV.  Time. 

quandbfNYiQn'i 

quotiens,  how 
often  ? 

quandb,  aliquando, 
unq^ugm,  at  any  time. 

aliquotieris,  somewhat 
often. 

nunc,  now ; turn, 
then;  tunc,  at  that 
very  time ; ihi,  then. 

totiens,  so  often. 

i quom,  cum, 
quum,  when. 

quotiens,  as,  as 
often. 

V.  Way,  Manner,  Degree. 

qua,  by  or  in 
what  way  ? 

aliqud,  by  or  in  some 
way : qudvls,  by  any 
way. 

hdc,  by  this  way; 
istdc,  by  that  way; 
iliac,  by  that  way ; 
ed,  by  that  way ; ed- 
dem,  by  the  same 

qud,  by  which 
way. 

ut,  utl,  how  ? 

quam,  how 
much  ? 

aliqud,  in  some  way, 
etc. 

way. 

ita,  sic,  so,  thus. 

ut,  utl,  in 
which  way,  as. 

aliquam,  somewhat. 

tarn,  so  much. 

quam,  as. 

Note  1. — From  Relative  Adverbs  are  formed  General  or  Indefinite  Relatives  by 
appending  -cumque  or  by  reduplicating  the  form : ubicumque.^  uMub%  wheresoever ; 
quocumque.,  quoquo.,  whithersoever. 

Note  2. — Other  examples  are — 

1)  Place  elsewhere;  ibidem.,  in  the  same  place;  necubi.,  lest  anywhere, 

that  nowhere  ; slcubi,  if  anywhere ; alio.,  to  another  place  ; citro.,  to  this  side ; iiltrb 
citrbque.,  to  and  fro ; utroque.,  to  both  places  ; aliunde.,  from  another  place ; indidem, 
from  the  same  place ; utrimque,  from  or  on  both  sides ; undique,  from  all  sides. 

2)  Ttme  hodie,  to-day  ; heri,  yesterday ; eras,  to-morrow ; prldie,  the  day  be- 
fore; postridie,  the  day  after;  jam,  already;  jam  turn,  even  then ; jamdiu,  jamdudum, 
jamprldem,  long  ago ; quondam,  at  a certain  time ; blim,  formerly,  hereafter  ; interim, 
interea,  meanwhile;  anted,  prius,  before;  post,  posted,  afterward;  unquam',  ever; 
nunquam,  never;  semper,  at  all  times. 

8)  Way,  Manner,  Degree  \—adeb,  so  ; aliter,  otherwise ; magis,  more ; paene,  al- 
most ; palam,  openly ; prorsus,  wholly  ; rite,  rightly ; valde,  greatly  ; vix,  scarcely. 

4)  Cause  \—cur,  why;  eb,  for  this  reason;  ideb,  idcircb, proptered,  on  this  account; 
ergb,  igitur,  itaque,  therefore,  accordingly. 

Note  3. — Nescib,  with  an  interrogative  adverb,  is  often  equivalent  to  an  indefinite 
adverb : nescib  quomodo,  I know  not  in  what  way  = qubdammodo,  in  some  way ; 
nescib  ubi  = alicubi,  m someplace;  nescib  unde= alicunde,  from  someplace;  see  also 
191,  note. 

Note  4. — Adverbial  phrases  are  formed  by  combining  mlrum  or  nimium  with  quan- 
tum : mlrum  quantum,  it  is  wonderful  how  much  = wonderfully  much,  wonderfully ; 
nimium  quantum,  exceedingly.  Mlrum  quam,  sane  quam,  and  valde  quam  have  a 
similar  force : how  wonderfully,  how  ve/ry,  how  greatly  = exceedingly,  wond&rfully. 

Note  5. — For  Interrogative  Particles,  see  311,  8. 

Note  6. — For  Negative  Particles,  see  553. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


149 


306.  Comparison. — Most  adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives, 
and  are  dependent  upon  them  for  their  comparison.  The  com- 
parative is  the  accusative  neuter  singular  of  the  adjective,  and  the 
superlative  changes  the  ending  us  of  the  adjective  into  e : ^ ^ 

altus,  altior,  altissimus,  lofty- 

alte,  altius,  altissime,  loftily. 

prudens,  prudentior,  prudentissimus,  pi'udent. 

^prudenter,  prudentius,  prudentissime,  prudently. 

1.  When  the  adjective  is  compared  with  magis  and  maxime.^  the  adverb 
is  compared  in  the  same  way : 

egregius,  magis  egregius,  maxime  egregius,  excellent. 

^^regie,  magis  egregie,  maxime  egregie,  excellently. 

2.  When  the  adjective  is  irregular,  the  adverb  has  the  same  irregularity : 

bonus,  melior,  optimus,  good. 

bene,  melius,  optime,  well. 

-male,  P^jus,  pessime,  hodly. 


3.  When  the  adjective  is  defective,  the  adverb  is  generally  defective : 

deterior,  deterrimus,  worse. 

deterius,  deterrime,  worse. 

- novus,  novissimus,  nm. 

Vnove,  novissime,  newly. 


4.  A few  not  derived  from  adjectives  are  compared : 


^iu,  diutius, 

^aepe,  saepius, 

•indatis,  satius, 

_puper,  


diutissime, 

saepissime. 


nuperrime. 


for  a long  time- 
often, 
sufficiently, 
recently. 


5.  Most  adverbs  not  derived  from  adjectives,  as  also  those  from  ad- 
jectives incapable  of  comparison  (169),  are  not  compared : hlc^  here  ; nunc, 
now;  vulgariter.^  commonly. 

6.  Superlatives  in  6 or  um  are  used  in  a few  adverbs : primo,  prlmum^ 
potissimum. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


307.  The  Preposition  is  the  part  of  speech  which  shows  the 
relations  of  objects  to  each  other : 

In  Italia  esse,  to  he  in  Italy  ; ante  me,  before  me. 

Note  1— Prepositions  were  originally  adverbs,  and,  like  other  adverbs  (304),  are  in 
origin  petrified  case-forms. ^ 

1 See  304,  II.,  2. 

2 Thus  prepositions  in  a,  are  in  origirt  ablatives : circa,  citrd,  contra,  ergd,  extra, 
Infra,  etc;  while  those  in  m are  accusatives:  circvm,  coram,  cum,  etc.  These  case- 
forms  passed  into  adverbs  denoting  direction,  situation,  etc. ; but  they  finally  became 
associated  with  nouns  in  the  accusative  or  ablative  as  auxiliary  to  the  case-ending : lo(w 


150 


CONJUNCTIONS, 


Note  2.— For  the  Use  of  Prepositions,  see  433-437. 

Note  3.— For  the  Foem  and  Meaning  of  Prepositions  in  Composition,  see  344,  5. 

308.  Inseparable  Prepositions.^  — Arribi^  amb^  ‘around,’ 

‘about’;  dis^  d\  ‘asunder’;  m,  ‘not,’  ‘un-’;  ‘toward,’ 

‘forth’;  re^  red^  ‘back’;  se,  setZ,  ‘aside,’  ‘apart’;  and  'ce,,  ‘not,’ 
are  called  Inseparable  Prepositions,  because  they  are  used  only  in 
composition.  » 

Note. — For  the  Foem  and  Meaning  of  the  Inseparable  Prepositions  in  Composition, 
see  344,  6. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

309.  Conjunctions  are  mere  connectives.  They  are  either  Co- 
ordinate or  Subordinate. 

1.  Coordinate  Conjunctions  connect  similar  constructions  : 

Labor  voluptasQUE,^  labor  and  pleasure.  Karthaginem  cepit  ac  2 diruit,  he 
tooh  AND  destroyed  Carthage. 

2.  Subordinate  Conjunctions  connect  subordinate  with  principal  con- 
structions : 

Haec  dum2  colligunt,  effugit,  while  they  collect  these  things.^  he  escapes. 

310.  Coordinate  Conjunctions  comprise — 

1.  Copulative  Conjunctions,  denoting  union: 

Et.,  gue.^  atgue^^  dc^  and ; etiam.,  guogue.,  also ; negue.,  nec.,  and  not ; negue 
— negue.,  nec — nec.,  negue — nec.,  neither — nor. 

2.  Disjunctive  Conjunctions,  denoting  separation  : 

Aut.,^  'cel.,  ve.,  slve  {seu).,  or  ; aut-^aut.,  vel — vel^  either — or ; sire — slve,  eith- 
er— or. 

Note.— Here  belong  interrogative  particles  in  double  or  disjunctive  questions : utrum., 
num.,  or  ne — a7i,  whether — or;  or;  annon.,  necne.,  or  not;  see  353. 

3.  Adversative  Conjunctions,  denoting  opposition  : 

= FEOM  a place ; ex  loco  = out  of  a place ; aliguid  loco  morere.,  to  move  anything  feom 
a place ; aliquid  ex  loco  morere.,  to  move  anything  out  of  a place.  An  adverb  thus 
separated  from  the  verb  and  brought  into  connection  with  a noun  ceased  to  be  an  adverb 
and  became  a preposition. 

1 Like  other  prepositions,  these  were  doubtless  originally  case-forms. 

2 Thus  que  connects  two  nominatives,  dc  two  indicatives  which  are  entirely  coordi- 
nate, tooh  AND  destroyed.,  but  dum  connects  the  subordinate  clause,  haec — colligunt^ 
with  the  principal  clause,  effugit— he  escapes  while  they  collect  these  things. 

2 Copulative  conjunctions  are  et  = Greek  en,  que  = /cat,  and  their  compounds — et-iam 
or  et-jam.,  at-que,  quo-que.,  ne-que.  Ac  is  a shortened  form  of  ai-que;  nec.,  of  ne-que. 

* Disjunctives  are  aut.,  rel.,  re.,  with  their  compounds  : rel  = relis.,  ‘ should  you  wish,’ 
offering  a choice,  = 'Tis,  ‘you  wish,’  as  in  qul-rls.,  ‘any  you  please’;  alre  — mrls.,  ‘if 
you  wish.’ 


CON'JUNCTIONS. 


151 


Sed^'^  autem^  verum^  verd^  but;  at^  but,  on  the  contrary;  atqm^  rather; 
ceterum^  but  still,  moreover; 2 tamen ^ yet. 

4.  Illative  Conjunctions,  denoting  ineerence  ; 

Ergo^  igitur^  inde ^ proinde^  itaque^  hence,  therefore  ; see  also  554,  IV.,  2. 

6.  Causal  Conjunctions,  denoting  cause  : 

iVaw,  namque^  enim^  etenim^  for. 3 

311.  Subordinate  Conjunctions  comprise — 

1.  Temporal  Conjunctions,  denoting  time  : 

Quando^  quom^^  cum^  or  quum^  when ; ut^  ubi^  as,  when ; cum  {quom  or 
quum)  prlmum^  ut  py^lmum^  ubt  prlmum^  simul^  simuldc^  simul  dc^  simul- 
atque^  simul  atque ^ as  soon  as ; dum^  donee ^ quoad ^ quamdiu^^  while,  until,  as 
long  as ; antequam^  priusquam^  before ; postedquam^  after. 

2.  Comparative  Conjunctions,  denoting  comparison  : 

TJt^  utl^  slcut^  slcuti^  as,  so  as ; velut^  just  as ; praeut^  prout^  according  as, 
in  comparison  with  ; quam^  as  ; tanquam^  quasi^  ut  sl^  do  si^  'oelut  sl^  as  if. 

3.  Conditional  Conjunctions,  denoting  condition  : 

if ; si  non^  nisi^  nl^  if  not ; sln^  but  if ; si  quidem^  if  indeed ; si  modo^ 
dum  modo^  dummodo^  if  only,  provided. 

4.  Concessive  Conjunctions,  denoting  concession  : 

Quamquam^  licet^  cum  {quom^'^  or  quum)^  although ; etsl^  tametsi^  etiamsi^ 
even  if ; quamms^  quantumvis^  quantumlihet^'^  however  much,  although ; ut^ 
grant  that ; ne^  grant  that  not. 

5.  Final  Conjunctions,  denoting  purpose  or  end  : 

Vi^  utl^  that,  in  order  that ; ne^  nefoe  (neu)^  that  not ; quo^  that ; qubminus^^ 
that  not. 

6.  Consecutive  Conjunctions,  denoting  consequence  or  result  : 

Ut^  so  that ; ut  non^  quln^^  so  that  not. 

1 Conjunctions,  like  adverbs,  consist  largely  of  case-forms,  chiefly  from  pronominal 
stems.  Thus,  sed^  verb^  ergb^  etc.,  are  explained  as  ablatives  {sed  from  sui)\  autem  ^ 
verum^  ceterum^  quam^  quod^  quom^  or  cum^  etc.,  as  accusatives;  que^  uh\  ut\  u%  etc., 
as  locatives. 

2 Lit.,  as  to  the  rest. 

3 But  most  Causal  Conjunctions  are  subordinate;  see  311,  7. 

^ Quom.,  the  original  form  out  of  which  cum  and  quum  were  developed  (33;  36. 
foot-note),  occurs  in  early  Latin,  as  in  Plautus.  Cum  is  the  approved  form  in  classical 
Latin. 

5 See  304,  I.,  1 and  2,  foot-notes. 

* Probably  locative,  possibly  instrumental;  see  page  73,  foot-note  2. 

Licet  is  strictly  a verb,  meaning  it  is  permitted;  vis.,  in  qioam-vls  and  quantum- 
vis.,  is  also  a verb:  quam-vls.,  ‘as  much  as  you  wish’;  as  is  also  libet.,  ‘it  pleases,’  in 
quantum-libet,  ‘as  much  as  is  pleasing.’ 

8 Quominus  = quo  minus.,  ‘ by  which  less  ’ ; qulm  = qul  ne.,  ‘ by  which  not.’ 


152 


FORMATION  OF  WORB^. 


7.  Causal  Conjunctions,  denoting  cause  : 

Quia^  quod^  quoniam^^  quando^  because,  inasmuch  as ; cum  {quom^  quum\ 
since  ; quandoquidem^  siquidem^  utpote^  since  indeed. 

8.  Interrogative  Con  junctions,  denoting  inquiry  : ^ 

nonne^  num^  utrum^  an^  whether ; an  non^  necne^  or  not. 

INTEKJECTIONS. 

312.  Interjections  are  certain  particles  used  as  expressions  of 
feeling  or  as  mere  marks  of  address.'*  They  may  express — 

1.  Astonishment : e,  hem^  ehem^  atat^  huhae^  vdh^  en^  ecce. 

2.  Joy ; io^  evoe^  euge,  eja^  papae. 

3.  Sorrow;  me.^  ei,  heu.,  eheu.^  Ohe.,  dJi^  au.,pro, 

4.  Disgust:  aha^  pliy^  apage. 

5.  Calling : heus.,  o,  ehodum. 

6.  Praise  ; eu.^  euge.^  eja.^  heja. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 

SECTION  I. 

ROOTS.— STEMS.— SUFFIXES. 

313.  Words  are  formed  from  stems  (40,  1),  and  stems  from 
roots  or  from  other  stems. 

Note  1. — Thus  status.,  ‘position,’  is  formed  from  the  stem  statu  by  adding-  the  nom- 
inative suffix  s,5  but  the  stem  statu  is  itself  formed  from  the  root  sta  by  appending  the 
derivative  suffix  tu. 


1 Compounded  of  quom-jam.,  when  now. 

2 Lit.,  if  indeed. 

3 These  are  sometimes  classed  as  Adverbs.  In  some  of  their  uses  they  are  plainly 
Conjunctions.,  while  in  other  cases  they  approach  closely  to  the  nature  of  Adverbs.  As 
a matter  of  convenience  they  may  be  called  Interrogative  Partides;  see  351, 1. 

^ Some  interjections  seem  to  be  the  simple  and  natural  utterance  of  feeling,  and 
accordingly  do  not  appear  to  have  been  built  up,  like  other  words,  from  roots  and  stems, 
but  to  be  themselves  specimens  of  the  unorganized  elements  of  human  speech.  Others, 
however,  are  either  inflected  forms,  as  age.,  ‘ come,’  apage  = airaye,  ‘ begone,’  or  muti- 
lated sentences  or  clauses : mehercules.,  meliercuJe.,  etc.,  = me  Hercules  juvet.,  ‘ may 
Hercules  protect  me’;  mecastor.,  ‘may  Castor  protect  me’;  mMius  fidius.,  ‘may  the 
true  God  help  me  ’ ; ecastbr  = en  Castor.,  ‘ lo  Castor.’ 

^ This  s is  doubtless  a remnant  of  an  old  demonstrative,  sa,  meaning  that.,  he.  she. 


ROOTS.— STEMS. 


153 


Note  2.— Words  are  either  simple  or  compound : 

1.  Simple.,  when  formed  from  single  roots  with  or  without  sufldxes. 

2.  Compound.,  when  formed  by  the  union  of  two  or  more  roots  or  stems;  see 

340,  III. 

314.  Roots. — Roots  are  the  primitive  elements  out  of  which 
all  words  in  our  family  of  languages  have  been  formed.  ^ They  are 
of  two  kinds : 

I.  Predicative  Eoots,  also  called  Verbal  Roots.2  These  designate  or 
name  objects,  actions,  or  qualities  : es  in  es-t^  he  is ; ^ in  to  go ; due  in 
duc-s=  dux.,  leader;  doc  in  doc-ilis.,  docile. 

II.  Demonstrative  Eoots, ^ also  called  Pronominal  Eoots.  These  do  not 
name  objects  or  actions,  but  simply  point  out  the  relation  of  such  objects  or 
actions  to  the  speaker : me  in  mei.,  of  me  ; tu  in  tui,  of  you ; i in  is.,  that,  that 
one,  he. 

315.  The  Stems  ^ of  simple  words  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes  : Boot  Sterns^  Primary  Sterns^  and  Secondary  Stems. 

316.  Root  Stems  are  either  identical  with  roots,  or  are  formed 
from  them  without  the  aid  of  suffixes : 

Duc-is.,  ‘ of  a leader,’  root-stem  due  ; ^ es-tis^  ‘ you  are,’  root-stem  es  ; reg-es., 
‘ kings,’  root-stem  reg;  voc-is.,  ‘of  the  voice,’  root-stem  voc ; murmur-is,  ‘ of 
a murmur,’  root-stem  murmur. 

317.  Primaky  Stems  are  formed  from  roots  by  means  of  suf- 
fixes : ® 


1 These  roots  were  probably  all  monosyllabic,  and  were  once  used  separately  as  words, 
but  not  as  parts  of  speech.  Thus  es.  the  root  of  sum,  esse,  ‘ to  be,’  and  i,  the  root  of  eO, 
Ire,  ‘ to  go,’  were  doubtless  used  in  their  original  form,  as  significant  words,  long  before 
the  verbs  tliemselves  had  an  existence. 

2 Observe  that  from  this  class  of  roots,  whether  called  Predicative  or  Verbal,  may 
be  formed  the  stems,  not  only  of  verbs,  but  also  of  nouns,  adjectives,  and,  in  fact  of  all 
the  parts  of  speech  except  pronouns. 

3 The  learner  should  note  the  difference  in  signification  between  Predicative  and 
Demonstrative  Eoots.  Thus  dux  has  a definite  meaning,  and  must  always  designate 
one  who  leads;  while  the  pronoun  ego  is  not  the  name  of  any  person  or  thing,  but  may 
be  used  by  any  and  every  person  in  speaking  of  himself. 

4 The  learner  has  already  become  familiar  with  the  use  of  stems  in  the  infiection  of 
nouns,  adjectives,  etc. ; but  stems,  like  roots,  were  probably  once  used  as  words. 

® The  basis  of  every  inflected  word  is  a stem.  Due  is  therefore  the  stem  of  duc-is, 
but  as  it  can  not  be  derived  from  a more  primitive  form,  it  is  also  a 7'oot.  According  to 
some  authorities,  reg,  the  stem  of  reg-es,  and  voc,  the  stem  of  voc-is,  are  not  roots,  but 
derived  from  more  primitive  forms— reg  in  reg-o,  and  voc  in  voc-o  ; according  to  other 
authorities,  however,  reg  and  rig  are  only  two  forms  of  the  same  root;  so  also  voc  and 
voc,  due  and  due.  The  stem  murmur  is  'not  a root,  but  formed  from  the  root  mur 
by  reduplication.  See  Curtius,  Chron.,  p.  25;  Schleicher,  pp.  841-350;  Meyer,  pp.  8^ 
871-376. 

8 Any  sufldx  used  to  form  a Primary  Stem  is  called  a Primary  Suffix;  see  320. 


154 


STEM8. 


Root. 

Suffix. 

Stem. 

Word. 

ar, 

VO, 

ar-vo. 

ar-vu-m,i 

field. 

fac, 

to. 

fac-to. 

fac-tu-s,i 

made. 

sta, 

tu. 

sta-tu. 

sta-tu-s. 

position. 

Note. — All  stems 

formed  from  verb-stems  are 

also  generally  classed  as  Primary 

Stems : 2 curd-tor,  ‘ guardian,’ 

‘ curator,’  from  euro. 

‘ to  care  for,’  from  cur  a,  ‘ care.’ 

318.  Secondary  Stems  are  formed  from  other  stems  ® by  means 

of  suffixes : ^ 

Stem. 

Suffix. 

Secondary  Stem. 

Word. 

civi,5 

CO ; 

civi-co. 

civicus. 

civic. 

victor,® 

ia; 

victor-ia. 

victoria. 

victory. 

victor, 

ic; 

victor-ic. 

victrix,® 

victress. 

319.  The  Stems  of  Compound  Words  are  formed  by  the  unioD 
of  two  or  more  stems,  or  of  a stem  with  a root  : 


fu-era,'^ 

grand-aevo,8 

igni-color,» 

magn-animOjio 


fu-era-s, 

grand-aevu-s, 

igni-color, 

magn-animu-s, 


you  had  been, 
of  great  age. 
fire-colored, 
great-souled. 


Note  1.— Words  are  formed  from  Stems  by  means  of  the  SuflOxes  of  Inflection;  see 
46  and  202,  note  1. 

Note  2.— A single  root  often  gives  rise  to  a large  class  of  forms.  Thus,  from  the  root 
sta,  ‘ to  stand,’  are  derived — 

1.  The  numerous  forms  which  make  up  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  sto,  stare,  stetl, 
statum,  to  stand. 

2.  All  the  forms  of  the  verb  sisto,  sistere,  stiti,  statum,  ‘ to  place.’ 

3.  Numerous  other  forms.  Thus  (1),  sta-Mlis,  ‘stable,’  ‘firm,’  from  which  are  de- 
rived stahilio,  ‘ to  make  firm  ’ ; staMliius,  ‘firmness,’  and  stabiliter,  ‘ firmly’ ; (2)  stabu- 
lum, ‘ a standing  place,’  ‘ stable,’  from  which  are  derived  stabulo,  and  stabulor,  ‘ to  have 
a standing  place  ’ ; (8)  stamen,  ‘ something  standing,’  ‘ warp  in  an  upright  loom  ’ ; (4) 
statim,  ‘in  standing,’  ‘at  once’;  {h)  statio,  ‘standing’;  (6)  stdtwus,  ‘stationary’;  (7) 
stator,  ‘a  stayer’ ; and  (8)  status,  ‘position,’  from  which  is  derived  statuo,  ‘to  place,’ 
Which  in  turn  becomes  the  basis  of  statua,  ‘ a statue,’  and  statura,  ‘ stature.’ 


1 Ar-ro-m  weakened  to  arrum,  fac-to~s  to  factus;  see  22,  2. 

2 This  is  a matter  of  convenience,  as  new  stems,  or  words,  are  formed  from  verb-stems 
In  the  same  manner  as  from  roots ; see  Schleicher,  p.  347. 

3 Except  verb -stems.  Remember  that  stems  formed  from  verb-stems  are  treated  as 
Primary;  see  317,  note. 

4 Any  suffix  used  to  form  a Secondary  stem  is  called  a Secondary  suffix,  but  many 
suffixes  may  be  either  primary  or  secondary.  Thus  co  in  clricus  is  Secondary,  as  it 
is  added  to  a stem ; but  in  locus,  ‘ place,’  it  is  Primary,  as  it  is  added  to  a root. 

® Clri  is  the  stem  of  clris,  citizen  ; mctbr  of  mctor,  conqueror. 

® For  mctorix,  by  contraction. 

Compounded  of  root /w  with  stem  era  from  the  root  es;  see  303,  note  2,  and  343. 

® For  grandi-aevo. 

^ Compounded  of  igni,  the  stem  of  Ignis,  ‘ fire,’  and  of  color,  the  stem  of  color.,  ‘ color.’ 
Compounded  of  mdgno,  the  stem  of  magnus,  ‘great,’  and  of  animo,  the  stem  of 
animus,  ‘soul’ ; magno-animo  becoming  magnanimo. 


SUFFIXES, 


155 


320.  Suffixes. — Most  suffixes^  appear  to  have  been  formed 
from  a comparatively  small  number  of  primitive  elements  called 


Primaky  Suffixes. 


I. 

11.2 

Examples. 

a, 

a, 3 o,  e,  e,  i, 
6,  u, 

^ and  o in  nouns  and  adjectives,  e in  nouns, 
and  e,  i,  o,  and  u in  verbs : scrlb-a.,  writer ; 
fug-a.,  flight ; jug-o.,  Nom.  jug-u-mf^  yoke ; 
fid-e.,  Nom.  Jid-e-s.,  faith;  reg-e.,^  rule  thou;, 
reg-i-s.,  you  rule ; reg-o.,  I rule  ; reg-u-nt.,  they 
rule. 

i, 

in  a few  nouns : av-i.,  Nom.  dv-i-s.,  bird ; arc-i.^ 
Nom.  arc-i-s.,  arc-sf  arx.,  citadel. 

1 in  nouns : ’’  ac-u.,  Nom.  ac-u-s.,  needle. 

an, 

on,  on,  en, 
in. 

denoting  either  the  act  or  the  agent;  asperge 
on.,  Nom.  aspergO^  (G.  inis).,  sprinkling;  ger- 
bn^  gerb^  (G.  bnis).,  a carrier;  pect-en  (G.  inis)., 
a comb. 

ant,^ 

ent,  unt. 

in  present  participles : audient-s.,^^  audiens., 

hearing ; ab-es-ent-s.,  ab-sens.,  absent ; amd- 
ent-s.,  amdns.,  loving. 

* Most  suffixes  appear  to  be  of  pronominal  origin,  i.  e.,  from  pronominal  stems  or 
roots,  but,  according  to  Bopp,  Corssen,  and  others,  a few  may  be  of  verbal  origin.  Thus 
in  several  suffixes  beginning  with  & — seen  m-her^  bilis^  bulum^  etc. — Corssen  recognizes 
the  root  bhar  — fer  in  fer-o^  ‘ to  bear  ’ ; in  some  beginning  with  seen  in  ter^  tor^  turus^ 
etc.— the  root  tor,  ‘ to  accomplish  ’ ; in  some  beginning  with  c — seen  in  cer,  culum^  crum^ 
etc. — the  root  kar  = cer^  ere  in  cre-o^  ‘ to  make.’  For  a discussion  of  the  subject,  see 
Bopp,  III.,  pp.  186-201;  Corssen,  I.,  p.  567;  II.,  pp.  40,  68;  Schleicher,  p.  443. 

2 Column  I.  shows  the  suffix  in  its  supposed  original  form,  while  column  II.  showj 
the  various  forms  which  the  suffix  has  assumed  in  Latin. 

3 Originally  long  in  Latin  in  feminine  forms  ; see  31,  2, 1). 

4 Observe  that  these  suffixes  form  sterns^  not  cases.  Sometimes  the  Nominative  Sing- 
ular is  in  form  identical  with  the  stem  ; but  in  most  cases,  the  Nominative  is  formed 
from  the  stem  by  adding  the  Nominative  suffix,  as  s in  Jide-s.,  m in  jugu-m  for  jugo-m 
fo  weakened  to  u,  33,  2). 

® Observe  that  the  Present  stem  takes  the  several  forms,  reg-e,  reg-i^  reg-o.,  reg-u ; 
but  see  page  118,  foot-note  5. 

6 Often  thus  dropped;  sometimes  changed  to  e,  e:  mar^  mare.,  sea;  caedi.,  caede., 
caede-s.,  slaughter. 

Also  in  adjectives,  m union  with  i making  ui  : ten-ui-s.,  thin. 

® A' dropped;  see  36,  5,  3). 

» This  is  the  base  of  several  compound  suffixes : ent  o.,  ent-ia.,  Nom.  enP 

■wm,  ent-ia.,  and  ent-ium ; flu-ent-um.,  stream;  sapi-ent-ia.,  wisdom ; sil-ent-ium.,  silence. 

It*  Also  in  a few  adjectives  and  frequ-ent-s.,  frequens.,  frequent;  pari-ent-s. 

parens.  Here  s is  the  Nominative  ending. 


156 


PRIMARY  SUFFIXES, 


Primary  Suffixes. — {Continued.) 


I. 

II. 

Examples. 

as, 

os,  us,  es,i 
es,  or,  ur. 

gen-os.,  gen-us^  birth;  corp-us^  body;  nub-es., 
cloud ; rob-ur.,^  strength ; sop-or  (31,  2),  sleep. 

11 

il,®  io,  ie, 

ia  and  io  in  adjectives ; ie  in  nouns : ex-im-id., 
ex-im-io.,  Nom.  ex-im-iu-s^  ex-im-ia.,  ex-im- 
iii-m.,  select;  fac-ie.,  Nom.  fac-ie-s.,  appear- 
ance. 

ja«  = ya, 

e,  i,  io,  iu. 

in  verbs : cap-e.,  take  thou ; cap-e-re.,  to  take ; 
cap-i-s.,  you  take ; cap-i-mus.,  we  take ; cap- 
io., I take ; cap-iu-nt.,  they  take. 

jans  — 

yans., 

ios,  ior,  ius, 
jor,  or. 

in  comparatives : mag-ids.,  mag-idr.,  md-jdr.,  Nom. 
md-jor  (31,  2),  greater;  min-dr.,  min-or  (31, 
2),  smaller ; see  163,  165. 

ka, 

cl,  CO, 

rare : « pau-cd.,  pau-co.,  pau-cus.,  a,  um.,  small ; 
lo-co.,  locus.,  place. 

la, 

1 la,  lo,  U, 

see  ra. 

ma,® 

ml,  mo. 

fdr-ma.,  form ; prl-mo.,  prl-mus.,  first ; sup-mo., 
sum-mo  (34,  3),  sum-mus.,  highest;  al-wo., 
al-mus.,  cherishing. 

1 This  suflQx  seems  to  be  used  in  forming-  the  Latin  Infinitive,  in  origin  the  Dative  of 
a verbal  noun  : reg-es-e.,  reg-ere  (31, 1),  ‘to  rule’ — lit., /or  ruling ; e is  the  Dative  end- 
ing (67,  note);  see  Schleicher,  p.  4T2.  See  also  page  81,  foot-note  2. 

2 With  variable  vowel  (57,  2);  in  early  Latin  o,  in  classical  Latin  u in  Nominative 
Singular,  e in  other  cases.  We  thus  have  in  early  Latin  os  in  gen-os.,  and  in  classical 
Latin  us  in  gen-us,  and  es  changed  to  er  (31,  1)  in  gen-er-is.,  gem-er-%  etc.  Words  of 
this  class  take  no  Nominative  ending. 

3 With  variable  vowel — o,  u.  We  thus  have  corp-us.,  corp-or-is.,  with  s changed  to 
r (31,  1).  S final  is  also  changed  to  r in  robur  \ see  31,  2. 

4 Doubtless  a pronominal  stem.  It  is  common  as  a secondary  suffix  (page  154,  foot- 

note 4) : pater-io.,  patr-io.,  Nom.  patr-ius.,  paternal;  mctor-ia.,  victory;  luxwr-ia.,  lux- 
ur-ies.,  luxury;  see  335.  “* 

s Originally  long  in  Latin,  see  31,  2, 1). 

® Probably  the  verbal  root^'«,  identical  with  i in  fre,  to  go.  So  explained  by  Curtius, 
Verbum,  I.,  pp.  290-295.  Ja  was  also  used  as  a secondary  suffix,  appended  to  the  stems 
of  nouns  and  adjectives,  in  forming  denominative  verbs;  see  335,  foot-note. 

7 This  suffix  is  generally  secondary:  alt-ior.,  alt-ius.,  higher;  sapient-ior.,  wiser; 
see  163. 

s It  seems  to  appear  without  its  final  vowel  in  some  nouns  in  x : ape-c-s^  apex.,  point, 
top.  It  is  common  as  a secondary  suffix:  clri-co^  ciri-cus.,  civic  (330);  and  is  also 
used  in  compound  suffixes,  as  cu-lo.,  ci-no.,  ti-co : Jlds-cu-lus.,  a small  flower;  vdti-ci-nus., 
prophetic.  See  Schleicher,  p.  478 ; Corssen,  II.,  pp.  205,  306,  307. 

3 This  is  also  an  element  in  ti-md.,  ti-mo.,  si-md.,  si-mo.,  is-si-md,  is-si-mo:  op-tv 
mus.,  a,  -wm,  best;  alt-is-si-mus.,  highest. 


mm  ARY  81TFF1XES. 


16? 


Primary  Suffixes. — {Continued.) 


I. 

II. 

Examples. 

man,^ 

men,^  min,^ 
m5n, 

denoting  the  means  of  the  action,  sometimes 
the  ACT  itself,  or  its  result  : tegi-men.,  or  Ug- 
men^  a covering ; nb-men^^  name  ; certd-men., 
contest ; ser-mbn.^  ser-mb.^'^  discourse. 

na,^ 

ni,  no. 

1.  in  adjectives  with  the  force  of  perfect  parti- 
ciples : 5 plend.,  ple-no.,  ple-nus.,  um.^  filled, 

full;  reg-no.,  reg-num.^  kingdom,  that  which 
is  ruled. 

2.  in  nouns  and  adjectives  with  various  mean- 
ings : ® sop-no.^  som-no  (33,  3,  note),  som-nus.^ 
sleep. 

ni, 

ni,’ 

Ig-ni.^  Ig-nis.^  fire ; pd-ni.^  pd-nis.,  bread. 

nu,  nu, 

very  rare  : ma-nu.^  ma-nus^  hand. 

ra,*^  la, 

ra,  ro,  la, 
lo,  U, 

ag-ro  {agrus).^  ager.^  field ; sac-ro  {sac-rus).,  sacer., 
sac-ra.,  sac-rum.,  sacred ; sed-ld.,  sel-la  (34,  2), 
seat ; cande-la.,  a light ; te-lo.,  te-lum.,  weapon  ; 
doci-li.,  doci-lis.,  docile. 

ta,« 

ta,  to,  si, 
so. 

1.  in  perfect  participles : amd-tb.,  amd-tus.,  a, 

um.,  loved;  plaud-to.,  plau-so  (35,  3),  plau- 
sus., applauded ; cbnd-tus.,  having  tried ; prdn- 
sus,  having  taken  lunch. 

2.  in  a few  adjectives : sex-fo,  sex-tus^  sixth. 

1 This  is  an  element  in  men-to.,  mon-id.,  and  mon-io:  nutri-men-tum.^  nutriment; 
queri-mon-ia.,  complaint;  testi-mcn-ium  (secondary  suffix),  testimony. 

2 With  variable  vowel  (SY,  2).  The  suffix  man  is  weakened  to  men  in  the  Nomina- 
tive Singular,  and  to  min  in  the  other  cases. 

3 For  gno-men.,  ‘ name,’  the  means  by  which  one  is  known. 

^ W is  dropped;  see  36,  5,  3). 

5 Nearly  equivalent  to  ta.  In  some  languages  it  forms  passive  participles  like  fa. 

® Often  secondary:  pater-no., pater-nus.,  paternal;  sometimes  preceded  by  «,  or  e: 
font-d-nus.,  of  a fountain;  can-l-nus.,  canine;  ali-e-nus.,  belonging  to  another;  see  327, 
329,  and  330. 

As  ta  and  na  are  closely  related  in  meaning  and  use,  so  are  ti  and  ni.  They  are 
sometimes  united  in  the  same  suffix : ti-b-ni  (326). 

® Ra  and  la  are  only  different  forms  of  the  same  suffix.  In  Latin  and  Greek  this 
suffix  often  forms  verbal  adjectives  which  sometimes  pass  into  nouns  : gnd-rus.,  ‘know- 
ing,’ from  gnd  in  nb-sco.,  ‘ to  know’ ; fiw-pov,  ‘gift,’  ‘ something  given,’  from  So  in  6tS(op.t, 
‘to  give.’ 

8 In  the  form  of  ti  it  is  the  first  element  in  ti-mus.,  a,  um : op-ti-mus.,  best ; and  the 
second  element  in  is-si-mu.%  a,  um  : alt-is-si-mus^  highest.  In  the  form  of  ifd,  it  is  tho 
first  element  in  td-ti,  shortened  to  tdt : cwi-tds  = clvi-tdt-s,  state. 

1*’  Oft«n  becoming  adjectives  or  nouns:  al-to,  al-tus,  high  ; nd-tus,  son. 


158 


DERIVATIOn  OF  WORDS, 


Primary  Suffixes. — {Continued.) 


I. 

II. 

Examples. 

tar, 

ter,  tor. 

see  tra. 

w 

si, 

in  verbal  nouns : res-ti^  ms-tis.,  garment ; met-ti, 
met-tis.,  messis  (35,  3),  reaping,  harvest. 

tu. 

ta,“ 

in  verbal  nouns,  including  supines : sta-tu^  sta- 
tus., standing;  i-tu,  i-tus.,  going;  dic-tu  (su- 
pine), in  telling,  to  tell. 

tar,^tra,4 

ter,  tor,  tro. 

tei*  ® and  t5r  denoting  agency  ; tro,  means  : 
pa-ter.,  father;  md-ter.,  mother;  mc-tor,  con- 
queror ; audl-tor.,  hearer ; ard-trum,  plough. 

va. 

VO,  uo. 

in  nouns  and  adj ectives : ar-vo,  ar-vum,  ploughed 
fi^eld ; rac-uo.,  rac-uus.,  empty. 

SECTION  II. 

DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 

POEMATIOJSr  OF  NOUNS  BY  SUFFIXES. 

I.  From  the  Stems  of  Other  Nouns. 

321.  Diminutives  generally  end  in — 

lus,  la,  lum;  ulus,  ula,  ulum ; cuius,  cula,  culum:® 

1 Ti  is  the  first  element  in  ti-d.,  U-o,  ti-e,  ti-d-n%  ti-dn  {i  dropped) : justi-tia.,  jus- 
tice; serm-tio.,  ser^i-tium.,  service;  duri-tie.,  duri-ties.,  hardness;  sta-tidn.,  sta-tio  {n 
dropped),  station. 

2 /often  disappears',  men-ti.,  men-tis.,  men-ts.^  mens  (36,  2),  mind. 

3 Tu  is  the  first  element  in  the  suffixes,  tu-d,  tu-o ; tu-ti.,  tut.,  and  tu-don : sta-tua. 
statue;  mor-tuus.,  dead;  serm-tilti,  serni-tut  {servi-tuts).  serii-tus.,  servitude;  turpi- 
tudon.,  turpi-tudo  {n  dropped),  turpitude. 

4 Perhaps  of  verbal  origin  (330,  foot-note  1).  This  suflSx  seems  to  be  the  basis  of 
several  compound  sufiSxes : tor-id.,  tor-io.,  turd.,  turo.,  trie  for  tdr-i-c.,  etc. ; see  examples, 
334,  336,  330. 

® Ter  is  used  in  names  denoting  family  relationship.,  originally  agency  : pa-ter., 
lit,  p7'otector^  from  the  root  pa.,  to  protect. 

® For  the  convenience  of  the  learner  the  suffixes  are  given  in  the  Nominative  form, 
i.  e.,  with  the  Nominative  ending  and  the  modified  stem-vowel.  Observe  that  the  stem 
suffix  in  lu-s  and  lu-m  is  lo.  The  endings,  uhos.,  ula.,  ulum.,  were  developed  irregularly 
after  the  analogy  of  u-lus.,  u-la.,  xi-lum  in  such  words  as  hortu-lus.,  virgu-lus.,  oppid^i- 
lum^  where  the  u is  the  modified  stem-vowel.  Thus  the  u in  reg-u-lus  and  capit-u-lum 
is  an  irregularity  introduced  from  the  Diminutives  of  a and  o stems.  Lus.,  la.,  lum  are 
formed  from  the  suffix  la  or  m,  often  used  in  forming  Primary  Stems  (330).  Cuius., 
cula.,  culum  are  compound  suffixes  in  which  the  first  part,  cu.,  is  formed  from  the  suffix, 
originally  Tea.,  modified  in  Latin  to  co,  cw,  seen  in  lo-co-s.,  locus.,  place ; see  330,  Tea.,  foot-note. 


mwsrs. 


159 


filio-lus. 

a Utile  son, 

from 

filius. 

son. 

filio-la. 

a little  daughter, 

u 

filia. 

daughter. 

atrio-lum. 

a small  hall. 

u 

atrium. 

hall. 

alveo-lus. 

a small  cavity. 

a 

alveus. 

cavity. 

hortu-lus. 

a small  garden. 

(( 

hortus, 

garden. 

virgu-la. 

a.  small  branch, 

u 

virga. 

branch. 

oppidu-lum. 

a small  town. 

u 

oppidum. 

town. 

reg-ulus. 

a petty  king. 

u 

rex. 

king. 

capit-ulum. 

a small  head,. 

(( 

caput. 

head. 

flos-culus. 

a small  flower. 

a 

flos. 

flower. 

parti-cula. 

a small  part. 

u 

pars. 

part. 

munus-culum. 

a small  present. 

u 

munus. 

present. 

1.  Lus,  la,  lum,  are  appended  to  a and  o stems;  ulus,  ula,  ulum,  to 
Dental  and  Guttural  stems ; cuius,  cula,  culiun,  to  e,  i,  and  u stems,  and 
to  Liquid  and  s stems  ; see  examples. 

2.  Before  lus,  la,  lum,  the  stem-vowels  a and  o take  the  form  of  o 
after  e or  i,  and  the  form  of  u in  other  situations : filio-lus^  filio-la  for 
filid-la^  hortu-lus  for  horto-lus. 

3.  Before  cuius,  cula,  culum,  stems  in  u change  u into  i,  and  stems 
in  on  change  o into  u : versi-culus^  ‘ a little  verse,’  from  versus ; homun- 
mlus^  ‘ a small  man,’  from  homo.  Like  nouns  in  on,  a few  other  words 
form  diminutives  in  un-culus^  un-cula : av-unculus^  ‘ maternal  uncle,’  from 
avus^  ‘ grandfather.’  ^ 

4.  El-lus,  el-la,  el-lum,  il-lus,  il-la,  il-lum,'^  are  used  when  the  stem 
of  the  primitive  ends  in  a or  o,  preceded  by  1,  n,  or  r : ocel-lus^  ‘ small 
eye,’  from  oculus  ; fdhel-la^  ‘ short  fable,’  from  fdhula  ; vil-lum^  ‘ a small 
wine,’  from  vlnum. 

Note.— The  endings  leus  and  ci6  occur:  eeu-leus^  ‘a  small  horse,’  from  equus; 
homun-ciO,  ‘ a small  man,’  from  homo. 

322.  Patronymics,  or  names  of  Descent,  generally  end  in — 
des,  stem-suffix  da,  masculine  ; s for  ds,  stem-suffix  d,  feminine. 

Tantali-des,  son  of  Tantalus ; Tantali-s,  daughter  of  Tantalus.'^ 

Thesl-des,  son  of  Theseus ; Thesei-s,  daughter  of  Theseus. 

Thestia-des,  son  of  Thestius ; Thestia-s,  daughter  of  Thestius. 

Note.— The  sufiix  preceded  by  I or  d.  is  sometimes  used  in  forming  feminino  Pat- 

ronymics: Neptunl-ne^  daughter  of  Neptune;  Acrisio-ne.,  daughter  of  Acrisius. 

1 NuVe-cula.,  plehe~cula,  and  vulpe-cula  are  formed  as  if  from  e-stems. 

2 The  syllables  el  and  il  do  not  belong  to  the  ending,  but  are  produced  by  a slight  change 
in  the  stem.  The  quantity  of  the  vowel  e or  is  therefore  determined  by  the  primitive  : 
thus,  oculus.,  oculu-lus  — ocul-lus  = ocel-lus;  vlnum.,  vlnu-lum  = vln-lum  = vil-lum. 

3 Also  written  equuleus,  but  eculeus  is  the  approved  form. 

4 The  vowel  preceding  the  suffix  is  usually  i,  as  in  Tantali-des,  Tantali-s,  modified 
from  the  stem-vowel  o.  Primitives  in  eus  generally  change  eu  to  I or  ei,  as  in  Thesl- 
des,  TMsei-s;  and  primitives  in  ius  change  stem-vowel  o to  a,  as  in  ThesUa-des. 
Other  nouns  sometimes  form  Patronymics  after  the  analogy  of  nouns  in  ius : Ldertiaded, 
son  of  Laertes.  Aenms  has  Aeneades,  masculine,  and  Aeneis,  feminine. 


160 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 


323.  Designations  of  Place  are  often  formed  with  the  endings— 
^ium,  etum,  turn,  • ile.^ 


columb-arium. 

a dovecot., 
a forest  of  oaks.. 

from 

columba. 

dove. 

querc-etum. 

(( 

quercus, 

oak. 

sallc-tum, 

a thicket  of  luillows, 

u 

salix,  . 

willow. 

ov-Ile, 

a sheepfold.. 

u 

ovis, 

sheep. 

1.  Arium  designates  the  place  where  anything  is  kept,  a receptacle: 

lerdriurrij  ‘ treasury,’  from  aes^  money. 

2.  Etum,  turn,  used  with  names  of  trees  and  plants,  designate  the  place 
where  they  flourish : olivetum^  ‘ an  olive-grove,’  from  oliva^  ‘ olive-tree.’ 

3.  lie,  used  with  names  of  animals,  designates  their  stall  or  fold  : 
hovile^  ‘ stall  for  cattle,’  from  hos^  stem  bov. 

4.  Other  Examples  are — 

Aestu-drium^  ‘tidal  bay,’  from  aestus^  ‘tide’ ; avi-dnum.^  ‘aviary,’  from  ams.^ 
‘ bird  ’ ; don-drium.,  ‘ place  for  offerings,’  from  donum^  ‘ gift  ’ ; pom-drium^ 
‘ orchard,’  from  pomum.,  ‘ fruit  ’ ; aescul-etum.,  ‘ forest  of  oaks,’  from  aesculus^ 
‘ oak  ’ ; fln-Uum.,  ‘ pine-forest,’  from  plnus.,  ‘ pine  ’ ; ros-etum.,  ‘ rose-hed,’ 
from  rosa.,  ‘ rose  ’ ; mn-etum.,  ‘ vineyard,’  from  mnum.,  ‘ vine  ’ ; virguldum., 
‘a  thicket,’  from  mrgula.,  ‘ bush’ ; capr-lle.,  ‘goat-stall,’  from  caper.,  ‘goat.’ 

324.  Derivatives  are  also  formed  with  several  other  endings, 
especially  with — 

arius,  i8,  ium,  itium,  ma,  imSnium,  itas,  tus,  atus.^ 


statu-arius. 

a statuary.. 

from 

statua. 

statue. 

mul-io. 

muleteer., 

u 

mulus. 

mule. 

sacerdot-ium. 

priesthood., 

a 

sacerdos. 

priest 

serv-itium. 

servitude.. 

u 

servus. 

slave. 

reg-Ina, 

queen.. 

u 

rex. 

king. 

patr-imonium. 

patrimony.. 

(( 

pater. 

father. 

civ-itas. 

citizenship.. 

u 

civis. 

citizen. 

vir-tus. 

virtue., 

(( 

vir. 

man. 

,consul-atus. 

consulship.. 

u 

consul, 

consul. 

1.  Arius  and  io  generally  designate  persons  by  their  occupations. 

2.  Ium  and  itium  denote  office,  condition,  or  collection  : servitium^ 
servitude,  sometimes  a collection  of  servants. 

1 Arium  and  lie  are  the  endings  of  neuter  adjectives  used  substantively  (330).  The 
vowels  d and  I were  probably  developed  out  of  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive,  but  they 
were  afterward  treated  as  a part  of  the  suffix.  For  an  explanation  of  such  vowels,  see  330, 
foot-note.  Many  derivative  endings  were  thus  formed  originally  by  the  union  of  certain 
suffixes  with  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive ; accordingly,  when  added  to  vowel  stems, 
they  generally  take  the  place  of  the  stem-vowel : columJ)-a.,  columh-drium ; querc-o^ 
querc-etum. 

2 Arius  is  identical  in  origin  with  the  adjective  ending  arius  (330),  and  dtus  with 
dtus  in  participles.  In  each  the  initial  d was  originally  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive. 
tna  is  the  same  formation  as  the  adjective  ending  Inus  (330).  On  i-tium.,  i-monium^ 
i-tds.,  and  tus.,  see  ti.,  ta,  tu,  man.,  mon.,  with  foot-notes,  320;  remember  that  the  initial 
i was  developed  from  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive. 


muNS. 


161 


3.  ina  and  imonium  are  used  with  some  variety  of  signification ; see 
examples  under  7 below. 

4.  Itas  and  tus  designate  some  characteristic  or  condition  : hered-i- 
^tas,  ‘ heirship,’  from  heres^  ‘heir’ ; virtus,  ‘manliness,’  ‘ virtue,’  from  vir, 

'Js.  Atus  denotes  rank,  office,  collection:  consulatus,  ‘consulship,’ 
f/om  consul ; senatus,  ‘ senate,’  ‘ collection  of  old  men,’  from  se7iex. 

6.  For  Patrial  or  Gentile  Nouns,  see  331,  note  1. 

Note. — The  endings  ago,  IgD,  ugo^  also  occur:  vir-dgo,  ‘heroic  maiden,’ from 
vir,  ‘hero’;  ferr-ugo,  ‘iron -rust,’  ivom.  ferrum,  ‘iron.’ 

7.  Other  Examples  are — 

lAhr-drius,  ‘ transcriber  of  books,’  from  liber,  ‘ book’  ; llgn-drius,  ‘joiner,’ 
from  lignum,  ‘wood’  ; guadrlg-drius,  ‘driver  of  a four-horse  chariot,’  from 
quadriga,  ‘ four-horse  chariot’ ; arbitr-ium,  ‘ decision,’  from  arbiter,  ‘ arbiter’ ; 
conjug-ium,  ‘ wedlock,’  from  conjunx,  ‘ spouse  ’ ; magis-ter-ium,  ‘ presidency,’ 
from  magis-ter,  ‘president’;  bs-tium,  ‘door,’  from  bs,  ‘mouth’;  gall-lna, 
‘hen,’  from  gallus,  ‘ cock’ ; doctr-lna,  for  doctbr-lna,  ‘ doctrine,’  from  doctor, 
‘learned  man,’  ‘doctor’;  mdtr-imbnium,  ‘matrimony,’  from  mdter,  ‘moth- 
er ’ ; aedll-itds,  ‘ office  of  edile,’  from  aedilis,  ‘ edile  ’ ; auctbr-itds,  ‘ authority,’ 
from  auctbr,  ‘ founder,’  ‘ author’ ; senec-tus,  ‘ old  age,’  from  senex,  ‘ old  man  ’ ; 
^ribun-dtus,’^  ‘ office  of  tribune,’  from  tribunus,  ‘ tribune.’  > 

II.  Nouns  from  Adjectives. 

)C325.  From  Adjectives  are  formed  various  Abstract  Nouns 
Avifeli  the  endings — 

ia,  itia,  ta,  tas,  itas,  tus,  edo,  itudo,  imonia.^ 

dlligent-ia, 
superb-ia, 
amic-itia, 
juven-ta, 

^ llber-tas, 
bon-itas, 
pi-etas,^ 
juven-tus, 

I dulc-edo, 

j sol-itudo, 

V acr-imonia, 

1 These  endings  were  formed,  according  to  Corssen,  by  appending  the  suffix  an  to 
kg,  the  root  of  ago,  to  put  in  motion,  make,  do ; see  Corssen,  I.,  p.  577. 

As  if  formed  from  a verb,  tribund,  are,  like  equit-dtus,  ‘ cavalry,’  from  equito,  d/re, 
/to  ride,’  from  eques,  ‘ a horseman.’ 

3 When  appended  to  vowel  stems,  these  endings  take  the  place  of  the  final  vowel. 
Originally  the  initial  i in  i-tia,  i-tds,  i-tudb,  and  i-mbnia  formed  no  part  of  the  suffix, 
but  represented  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive.  On  ia,  Ua,  and  ta,  see  ja,  ti,  and  ta, 
320;  on  i-tds  and  tus,  see  page  160,  foot-note  2;  on  i-tudo  and  i-mbnia,  see  tu  and 
man,  320.  The  origin  of  e-dh,  e-din  is  obscure. 

4 For  pi-itds  by  dissimilation  (26). 

12 


diligence. 

from 

diligens. 

diligent.^\ 

haughtiness. 

u 

superbus, 

haughty. 

friendship. 

u 

amicus. 

friendly. 

youth, 

u 

juvenis. 

young. 

freedom. 

a 

liber. 

free. 

goodness. 

u 

bonus. 

good. 

piety. 

u 

plus. 

pious. 

youth. 

(( 

juvenis. 

young. 

siceetness. 

(( 

dulcis. 

sweet. 

solitude. 

« 

solus. 

alone. 

sharpness. 

acer. 

sharp. 

162 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 


Note  1. — Instead  of  ia  and  itia^  ies  and  ities  occur:  pauper.^  pauper-ies^  poverty; 
'liirus^  dur-itia  or  dur-ities.,  hardness. 

Note  2. — Before  ids  the  stem  of  the  adjective  is  sometimes  slightly  changed : facilu^ 
facultas^  faculty ; difficilis^  difficultas^  difficulty ; potens^  potestas^  powder. 

Note  3. — A few  adjectives  form  abstracts  with  both  itds  and  itudo : firmus^  firm- 
itas^ firmitudo^  firmness.  Polysyllabic  adjectives  in  tus  often  suffer  contraction  before 
these  endings : honestas  for  Jionest-itds^  ‘ honesty,’  from  honestus ; sollicitudo.,  for  sol- 
Ucit-itudb.,  ‘ solicitude,’  from  sollicitus. 

1.  Other  Examples  are — 

\^Auddc-ia^  ‘boldness,’  from  auddx.^  just-itia.,  ‘justice,’  from  justus^ 

'’just’;  ‘cruelty,’  from  saevus.^  ‘ cruel  ’ ‘old  age,’  from 

senex.,  ‘ old  ’ ; aequdl-itds^  ‘ equality,’  from  aequoMs.,  ‘ equal  ^S/cdr-itds.,  ‘ dear- 
ness,’ from  cdrus.,  ^dear’;  dnxi-etds.,  ‘anxiety,’  from  anxious'y  alt- 

itudo., ‘height,’  fromaltus.,  '‘high’’  \jd[ort-itud6.,  ‘bravery,’  from  foriis.,  ‘brave’; 
mdgn-itudb.,  ‘greatness,’  from,  mdgnns.,  ‘great.’ 

III.  Nouns  from  Verbs  and  from  Roots. 


326.  From  the  Stems  of  Verbs  and  irpm  Roots  are  fortoed  n^i- 


x.tav-'' 


merous  nouns  with  the  suffixes — ^ 

ter,  tor, 2 trix,  trum,  tura,  tus,  tio,  io.® 


K or-- 


^ pa-ter. 

father., 

from  the  root 

pa, 

to  protect. 

fra-ter. 

brother., 

u 

bhra,  fra. 

to  support. 

ama-tor. 

lover, 

u 

ama-re, 

to  love. 

audl-tor. 

hearer, 

audl-re, 

to  hear. 

defen-sor. 

defender. 

u 

defend-ere. 

to  defend 

vena-tor, 

hunter. 

a 

vena-rl, 

to  hunt. 

vena-trix, 

huntress. 

u 

u 

u 

guberna-trix,  directress^ 

(( 

guberna-re, 

to  direct. 

ara-trum. 

plough. 

u 

ara-re. 

to  plough. 

ros-trum,^ 

beak. 

u 

rod-ere. 

to  gnaw. 

pTc-tor, 

painter. 

(( 

ping-ere. 

to  paint. 

pic-tura, 

painting. 

a 

u 

u-sura,^ 

using. 

u 

ut-T, 

to  use. 

audl-tus, 

hearing. 

a 

audl-re. 

to  hear. 

vl-sus,® 

sight. 

u 

vid-ere, 

to  see. 

audi-tio, 

hearing. 

u 

audl-re. 

to  hear. 

moni-tio,® 

advising. 

u 

mone-re. 

to  advise. 

vl-sio,® 

seeing. 

u 

vid-ere. 

to  see. 

leg-io,  ^ 

a selecting. 

u 

leg-ere. 

to  select. 

occld-io, 

a slaying. 

u 

occld-ere, 

to  slay. 

1 These  endings  appear  to  be  true  suffixes,  as  they  do  not  contain  the  stem- vowel  ol 
the  primitive. 

2 For  the  phonetic  change  by  which  t in  tor.,  tura,  etc.,  unites  with  a preceding  d or 
t and  produces  ss  or  s,  as  in  def end-tor,  defensor,  see  35,  3,  2). 

3 On  ter,  tor,  trlx,  and  tura,  see  tar,  tra;  on  tus  and  tib,  see  Pa  and  ti;  and  on  id. 
oee  ja,  330. 

4 For  rod-trum;  see  35,  3, 1). 

6 For  ut-tura,  'vid-tus,  rid-tib ; see  35  3 2) 

■ From  stem  monU  seen  in  mom -turn 


j^oirsR 


163 


\^1.  Ter,  tor,  and  trix  designate  the  agent  or  doer;  trum,  the  means 
of  the  action ; and  tura,  tus,  tio,  and  i6,  the  act  itself ; see  examples. 
But  nouns  in  tus  and  16  sometimes  become  concrete^  and  denote  the  result 
of  the  action : quaes-tus^  ‘ gain,’  from  quaes-ere^  ‘ to  gain  ’ ; leg-ib^  ‘ a select- 
ing ’ and  then  ‘ a legion  ’ (the  men  selected),  from  leg-ere^  ‘ to  select  ’ ; ex- 
erci-tus^  ‘ exercise,’  ‘ drill,’  and  then  ‘ an  army  ’ (a  collection  of  trained 
men),  from  exerce-re^  ‘ to  exercise.’ 

2.  Us,  a,  6^  sometimes  designate  the  agent  of  the  action:  coqu-us  — 
coquus^  cook,  from  coqu-ere^  to  cook ; scrlh-a^  writer,  from  scrlh-ere  ; err-b^ 
wanderer,  from  err-dre. 

Note  1. — Tbr,  trix^tura^  and  tus  are  sometimes  added  to  noun  stems  with  or  with- 
out change  : md-tor^  ‘ traveler,’  from  ma^  ‘ way  ’ ; send-tor^  ‘ senator,’  ift-om  seneor  (Geni- 
tive smis,  stem  S6n\  ‘old  man’;  jcmi-tor^  ‘janitor,’  and  ‘janitrix,’  from  jdn- 

ua^  ‘gate’;  litter d-tiir a ^ ‘writing,’  from  littera^  ‘letter’;  cdnsul-d-*us^  ‘consulship,’ 
from  consul^  ‘consul.’ 

Note  2. — For  nouns  in  id  from  the  stems  of  other  nouns,  see  334,  with  1. 

3.  Other  Examples  are — 

\[^Accusd-tor^  ‘ accuser,’  from  accusd-re^  ‘ to  accuse  ^ curd-tor^  ‘ keeper,’ 
from  curd-re^  ‘ to  take  care  of’ ; da-tor^  ‘ giver,’  from  da-re^  ‘ to  give 
tor^  ‘ victor,’  from  vinc-ere^^  ‘ to  conquer ‘a  female  discoverer,’ 
from  inven-lre^  ‘to  discover’;  monstrum  — mon-es-tr urn, ‘prodigy,’  from 
mon-ere^  ‘ to  admonish  ’ ; rds-trum^  ‘ rake,’  from  rdd-ere^  ‘ to  rake,’  ‘ scrape  ’ ; 
armd-tura^  ‘ arming,’  ‘ equipment,’  from  armd-re^  ‘ to  arm  ’ ; nd-tura^  ‘ birth,’ 
‘nature,’  from  nd-sci^'^  ‘to  be  born’;  scrl'p-tura^  for  scrlb-tura^^  ‘writing,’ 
from  scrlb-ere^  ‘ to  write  ’ ; dc-tus^  for  ag-tus^^  ‘ driving,’  ‘ act,’  from  ag-ere^  ‘ to 
drive,’  ‘act’ ; dc-tib^  for  ag-tib^  ‘action,’  from  ag~ere^  ‘to  act’ ; moni-tib^  ‘act 
of  admonishing,’  from  mone-re^  ‘to  admonish’;  mon-itus^  ‘admonition,’  from 
mom-re^  ‘to  admonish’;  opln-ib^  ‘opinion,’  from  opln-drl,  ‘to  think’;  opt- 
w,  ‘ choice,’  from  opUdre^  ‘ to  choose.’ 

327.  From  the  . Stems  of  Verbs  and  from  Eoots  are  formed 
nouns  with  the  suffixes — 

or,  us,  es,  ies,  ium,  en,  men,  mentum,  m5nia,  monium,  bulum, 
culum,  brum,^  crum,  num.® 

1 0 and  <1,  the  stems  of  us  and  are  only  different  forms  of  the  suflSx  a;  and  on^  tho 
otem  of  5,  bnis^  is  from  the  suffix  an;  see  330. 

2 Eoot  Die. 

3 With  the  compound  suffix  es-trum,  from  as-tra;  see  as  and  330. 

^ Eoot  nd. 

5 See  33, 1. 

® Observe  change  in  quantity:  ag-ere,  de-tus\  see  Gellius,  IX.,  6. 

^ On  the  forms  hulum^  brum^  culum^  crum^  see  35,  2,  foot-note  3. 

® On  or  (for  os),  us^  and  es,  see  as;  on  ies  and  ium^  see  ja;  on  en-,  see  an;  on  men., 
me/ntum^  mbnia^  and  monium^  see  man  ; on  num^  see  na— all  in  330 ; on  hulum^  hrum^ 
Qulum^  orum^  see  Corssen,  II.,  p.  40. 


164 

DERIVATION 

OF  WORDS. 

am-or, 

love., 

from  am -are. 

to  love. 

tim-or. 

fear, 

birth,, 

tim-ere. 

to  fear. 

gen-us. 

U 

gen  in  gign-ere. 

to  bear. 

frigus. 

cold.. 

U 

frig-ere,^ 

to  be  cold. 

sed-es. 

seat, 

make,  face. 

a 

sed-ere,* 

^ to  sit. 

fac-ies. 

(( 

fac-ere. 

to  make. 

gaud-ium. 

(( 

gaud-ere. 

to  rejoice. 

stud-ium. 

zeal,  study. 

u 

stud-ere. 

to  be  zealous 

pect-en. 

a comb. 

u 

pect-ere. 

to  comb. 

flu-men. 

a stream. 

u 

flu-ere. 

to  fiow. 

orna-mentum. 

ornament, 

u 

orna-re. 

to  adorn. 

queri-monia. 

complaint. 

u 

querl. 

to  complain. 

ali-monium. 

nourishment, 

u 

ale-re. 

to  nourish. 

voca-bulum. 

appellation. 

“ 

voca-re. 

to  call. 

vehi-culum, 

vehicle. 

' (( 

vehe-re, 

to  carry. 

delu-brum. 

shrine, 

a 

delu-ere. 

to  cleanse. 

simula-crum. 

image. 

u 

simula-re. 

to  represent. 

reg-num. 

reign. 

u 

reg-ere, 

to  rule. 

1.  Or,  us,  es,  ies,  and  ium  generally  designate  the  action  or  state 
denoted  by  the  verb,  but  es,  ies,  and  ium  sometimes  designate  the  result 
of  the  action  : aedificium^  ‘ edifice,’  from  aedifiic-are^  ‘ to  build.’ 

2.  Men,  mentum,  m5nia,  monium,  and  num  generally  designate  the 
MEANS  of  the  action,  or  its  involuntary  subject,  sometimes  the  act  itself, 
or  its  RESULT : fiu-men^  ‘ a stream,’  ‘ something  which  flows,’  from  fiu-ere  ; 
dg-men^  ‘ an  army  in  motion,’  from  ag-ere, 

Note.— The  stem  or  root  is  sometimes  shortened  or  chang-ed  : md-mentum^  ‘moving 
force,’  from  mov-ere. 

3.  Bulum,  culum,  brum,  and  crum  designate  the  instrument  or  the 
PLACE  of  the  action:  vehi-culum^  ‘vehicle’  (instrument  of  the  action), 
from  velic-re  ; sta-hulum^  ‘ stall  ’ (place  of  the  action),  from  std-re. 

Note. — The  vowel  of  the  stem  is  sometimes  changed:  sepul-crum^  ‘sepulchre,’  from 
sepel-lre^  ‘to  bury’;  see  34,  3. 

4.  In  culum,  c is  dropped  after  c and  g : vinc-ulum^  ‘ a bond,’  from 
mnc-ire  ; rcg-ula^  ‘ rule,’  from  r eg -ere. 

Note.— Z>d,  la.,  ago.  IgO.'^  and  a few  other  endings  also  occur : torpe-db.  ‘numbness,’ 
from  torpe-re.,  ‘to  be  numb’;  cupl-db.  ‘desire,’  from  cupe-re.^ to  desire’;  cande-la., 
‘candle,’  from  cande-re.  ‘to  shine’;  vor-dgb^  ‘whirlpool,’  from  vor-dre^  ‘ to  swallow  up  ’ ; 
vert-igb.,  ‘a  turn,’  from  rert-ere.  ‘to  turn.’ 

5.  Other  Examples  are — 

Splend-07\  ‘brightness,’  from  splend-ere^  ‘to  be  bright’;  op-us.  ‘work,’ 
from  the  root  op  for  ‘ work  ’ ; dec-us.,  ‘ ornament,’  from  root  dec.^  in  dec-et., 

1 In  several  of  these  examples  the  noun  is  not  strictly  derived  from  the  verb,  but 
both  noun  and  verb  are  formed  from  one  common  root,  as  fr%g-us  and  frig-ere  from  the 
root  frig. 

2 Sed-ere  and  sed-es  show  a variable  root-vowel— e,  e;  see  20,  note  2. 

8 See  Corssen,  I.,  p.  577 ; II.,  pp.  802,  303. 


ADJECTIVES, 


165 


it  is  becoming’;  nuh-es^  ‘cloud,’  from  the  root  nul  in  nub-ere,^  ‘to  veil’; 
Bpec-ies,^  ‘ look,’  from  spec-ere,,  ‘ to  look  ’ ; effug-ium,,  ‘ escape,’  from  effug-ere,, 
‘to  escape’ ; imper-ium,,  ‘ command,’  from  imper-are,,  ‘to  command’ ; certa- 
men,, ‘contest,’  from  certd-re,,  ‘to  contend’  ; docu^entum,^  ‘lesson,’  ‘docu- 
ment,’ from  doce-re,,  ‘ to  teach’ ; nutri-mentum,,  ‘nourishment,’  from  nutrl-re,, 
‘ to  nourish  ’ ; pd-hulum,,  ‘ fodder,’  from  the  root  pd  in  pd-scere,,  ‘ to  feed  ’ ; 
apectd-culum,,  ‘sight,’  from  spectd-re,,  ‘to  behold’;  lu-crum,,  ‘gain,’  from 
lu-ere,,  ‘ to  pay  ’ ; db-mim,^  ‘ gift,’  from  the  root  da  in  da-re,,  ‘ to  give.’ 

FOEMATION  OF  ADJECTIVES  BY  SUFFIXES. 

I.  Adjectives  from  Nouns. 

328.  Fullness. — Adjectives  denoting  fullness^  abundance,  sup- 
ply^ generally  end  in — 


A anim-dsus. 

OSU3,  COSUS, 

full  of  courage, 

lens,  lentus,  tus.“ 

from  animus, 

spirit,  courage 

' iructu-osus. 

fruitful. 

u 

fructus, 

fruit. 

' belli-cdsus. 

warlike, 

pestilential. 

a 

bellum. 

war. 

pesti-lens, 

u 

pestis. 

pest. 

V pesti-lentus. 

u 

u 

u 

u 

'/vlno-lentus. 

full  of  wine. 

u 

vinum. 

wine. 

fraudu-lentus. 

fraudulent, 

a 

fraus. 

fraud. 

ala-tus. 

winged, 

(( 

ala. 

wing. 

turri-tus. 

turreted. 

(4 

turris. 

turret. 

cornu-tus. 

horned. 

u 

cornu. 

horn. 

jus-tus, 

just, 

u 

jiis. 

right. 

Note.— Before  dsus  the  stem-vowel  is  generally  dropped,  but  u is  retained:  animt 
052^5,  anim-dsus,,  but  frueta-dsus, 

1.  Other  Examples  are — 

' Ann-bsus,  ‘ full  of  }^ars,’  from  annus,  ‘ year  ’ ; luxuri-bsus,  ‘ luxurious,’ 
from  hixuria,  perlcul-bsus,  ‘ dangerous,’  ixom  periculum,  ‘danger’; 

tenebr-bsus  and  teneWi-cbsus,  ‘ gloomy,’  from  tenebrae,  ‘ gloom  ’ ; turbu-lentus, 
‘ riotous,’  from  turba,  ‘ riot  ’ ; bat  bd-tus,  ‘ bearded,’  from  barba,  ‘ beard  ’ ; 
aurl-tus,  ‘long  eared,’  from  auris,  ‘ear’;  onus-tus,  ‘burdened,’  from  onus, 
‘ burden.’ 

329.  Material. — Adjectives  designating  the  material  of  which 
anything  is  made»generally  end  in — 

1 With  modified  stem  or  root:  doce,  docu;  da,  do, 

2 On  bsus,  see  Schleicher,  p.  403 ; Corssen,  I.,  p.  62 ; II.,  p.  688.  Cbsus  is  from  co 
and  bsus;  thus  from  bp.llum,  ‘war,’  is  formed  bdli-cus,  ‘belonging  to  war’;  and  from 
belli-cus  is  formed  bellico-bsus,  belli-ebsus,  ‘ warlike.’  On  lens,  lentus,  see  7-a,  la,  330. 
The  vowel  before  lens,  ZfiTifws— generally  u,  sometimes  o or  i — was  originally  the  stem- 
vowel  of  the  primitive,  as  in  mno-lentus,  pesti-lens,  pesti-lentus,  but  it  was  sometimes 
treated  as  a part  of  the  suflBx : vi-olentus,  ‘ violent,’  from  vis,  ‘ force.’  Tus  is  identical 
with  tus  in  the  passive  participle,  and  \Vhen  added  to  vowel-stems  is  preceded  by  0,  I, 
or  u:  dld-tufi,  iurrl-tus.  cornu-ius,  like  amd-tus,  audl-tus,  acu-tus  (‘sharpened,’  from 
dcn-Q,  ‘ to  sharpen  ’).  It  may,  however,  be  added  to  Qonsonant-stems : Jus-tu9» 


166  DERIVATION  OF  WORDS, 


eus,  nus. 

neus,  aceus. 

icius.^ 

aur-eus. 

golden., 

from 

aurum, 

gold. 

•argent-eus, 

of  silver,, 

a 

argentum. 

silver. 

fag-eus. 

of  beech., 

(( 

fagus, 

a beech. 

fagi-nus,^ 

u 

u 

a 

a 

fagi-neus,^ 

u 

u 

u 

u 

popul-nus,2 

of  poplar.. 

a 

populus, 

a poplar. 

popul-neus,^ 

a 

u 

u 

u 

papyr-aceus, 

of  papyrus,. 

u 

papyrus, 

papyrus. 

later-icius, 

of  brick,, 

u 

later, 

brick. 

Note. — These  endings  sometimes  denote  cJiaract67-UtiG  or  possession : mrgineus^ 
‘belonging  to  a maiden,’ 


330.  Characteristic. — Adjectives  signifying  lyelonging  to^  de- 
rived from,,  generally  end  in — 

cus,  icus,  alls,  ilis,  anus,  inus,  aris,  arius,  ius,  ensis.^ 


civi-cus. 

relating  to  a citizen.. 

from 

civis. 

citizen. 

patr-icus, 

paternal,. 

u 

pater, 

father. 

natfir-alis. 

natural,, 

u 

natura. 

nature. 

mort-alis. 

mortal,, 

a 

mors, 

death. 

host-llis. 

hostile,. 

u 

hostis, 

enemy. 

civ-llis. 

relating  to  a citizen., 

a 

civis, 

oppidum. 

citizen. 

oppid-anus. 

of  the  town., 
of  the  city.. 

a 

town. 

urb-anus. 

u 

urbs. 

city. 

mar-Inus, 

marine., 

of  pertaining  to  a horse.. 

mare. 

sea. 

equ-mus, 

u 

equus. 

horse. 

lun-aris. 

lunar., 

salutary,. 

u 

luna. 

moon. 

salut-aris. 

(( 

salus, 

auxilium. 

safety. 

auxili-arius, 

auxiliary^ 

u 

aid. 

reg-ius. 

royal.. 

u 

rex. 

king. 

orator-ius, 

of  an  orator., 

u 

orator,® 

orator. 

for-ensis. 

forensic, 

u 

forum. 

forum.. 

1 On  ews,  stem  eo,  see  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  342-346;  Bopp,  III.,  p.  429;  on  nus,,  see 
net,  320.  Neus  adds  eus  to  no,,  seen  in  nus;  deeus  adds  eus  to  67c,  seen  in  dx  (333, 
foot-note  2) ; and  ic-ius  adds  ius  to  ic  or  ico;  see^a,  320,  and  icus,,  330. 

2 Stem -vowel  changed  to  i before  7ius  and  neus. 

3 Stem-vowel  dropped  before  nus  and  neus. 

^ On  cus.,  see  320.  In  i-cus,,  i was  originally  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive,  but 
was  finally  treated  as  a part  of  the  suffix,  as  in  patr-icus.  In  the  same  way  the  vowels 
d and  I in  dlis.,  Ilis,,  dris.,  drius.,  dnus.,  and  inus  were  developed  from  the  stem-vowels 
of  the  primitives;  thus  in  such  words  as  doc-i-lis,,  ‘docile,’  from  doc-e-re.,  the  suffix 
seems  to  have  been  originally  Us.,  but  at  length  the  preceding  i was  treated  as  a part  of 
the  suffix,  making  ilis.  If  now  ilis  be  added  to  hosU.,  the  stem  of  hostis,,  we  shall  have 
hosti-ilis  = host-llis ; or,  with  Corssen,  we  may  suppose  that  from  hostis  was  formed 
the  verb  hosti-re,  and  that  the  ending  lis  was  added  directly  to  hostl,  making  hostl-lis. 
The  long  initial  vowel  in  other  endings  is  supposed  to  have  had  a similar  origin.  Alis.^ 
Ilis,,  and  dris  are  virtually  the  same  suffix,  as  I and  r are  interchangeable ; see  ra,  la^ 
foot-note,  320.  Arius  = diri-ius.  On  dnus.,  Inus,  and  ius,  ja  and  na,  320;  on 
ensis,  see  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  62,  254;  II.,  pp,  658,  719. 

® But  ord-tor  is  formed  from  ord-re  by  adding  tor  to  the  stem ; see  3^0, 


ADJECTIVES, 


167 


1.  Ester  or  estris,^  timus,  itimus,  ticus,^  cinus,  and  a few  other  end 
lugs  occur : terr -ester  or  terr-estris^  ‘ terrestrial,’  from  terra^  ‘ earth  ’ ; mari- 
timus^ ‘ maritime,’  from  mare^  ‘ sea  ’ ; leg-itimus^  ‘ lawful,’  from  lex^  legis, 

‘ law  ’ ; 7'us-iicus^  ‘ rustic,’  from  ‘ country  ’ ; vati-cinuSy  ‘ prophetic,’ 

from  vdtes,  ‘ prophet.’ 

2.  Other  Examples  are — ^ 

Domini-cuSy  ‘ of  a master,’  from  dominuSy  ‘ master  ’ ; serv-iliSy  ‘ slavish,* 
from  servus y ‘slave’;  mr-lliSy  ‘manly,’  from  vivy  ‘man’;  capit-dliSy  ‘of  the 
head,’  ‘capital,’  from  ‘head’;  reg-dliSy  ‘kingly,’  from  reXy  ‘king’; 

odnsul-drisy  ‘consular,’  from  cbnsuly  ‘consul’;  mllit-driSy  ‘military,’  from 
mlleSy  ‘soldier’;  agr-driuSy  ‘of  or  relating  to  land,’  from  ageVy  ‘field’;  ar- 
gent-driuSy  ‘of  silver,’  from  argentumy  ‘silver’;  can-lnuSy  ‘of  a dog,’  from 
caniSy  ‘dog’;  lup-lmiSy  ‘of  a wolf,’  from  lupuSy  ‘wolf’;  mont-dnuSy  ‘of  a 
mountain,’  from  monSy  ‘ mountain  ’ ; nox-iuSy  ‘ injurious,’  from  noxUy  ‘ in- 
jury ’ ; patr-iuSy  ‘ of  a father,’  from  pater  y ‘ father’ ; imperdtbr-iuSy  ‘ of  a com- 
mander,’ from  imperdtoVy  ‘ commander.’ 


331.  Adjectives  from  proper  nouns  generally  end  in — 


anus,  ianus. 

inus ; ius,  iacus. 

icus ; 

ensis,  iensis ; as. 

aeus,  eus.2 

Sull-anus, 

of  Sullay 

from 

Sulla, 

Sulla. 

Rom-anus, 

Romany 

(( 

Roma, 

Rome. 

Mari-anus, 

of  MariuSy 

(( 

Marius, 

Mai'ius. 

Ciceron-ianus, 

Ciceroniany 

(( 

Cicero, 

Cicero. 

Lat-mus,® 

Latiuy 

(( 

Latium, 

Latium. 

Plaut-inus, 

of  Plautus y 

u 

Plautus, 

Plautus. 

Corinth-ius, 

Co7'inthiany 

u 

Corinthus, 

Corinth. 

Corinth-iacus, 

u 

u 

u 

u 

Britann-icus, 

Britishy 

u 

Britannus, 

a Briton. 

Cann-ensis, 

of  Cannaey 

(( 

Cannae, 

Cannae. 

Athen-iensis, 

Atheniany 

u 

Athenae, 

Athens. 

I'lden-as, 

of  Fidenae y 

u 

Fidenae, 

Fidenae. 

Smyrn-aeus, 

Smgrneany 

u 

Smyrna, 

Smyrna. 

Pythagor-eus, 

Pgihagoreany 

a 

Pythagoras, 

Pythagoi'as. 

1.  Anus  and  ianus  are  the  endings  generally  used  in  derivatives  from 
Names  of  Persons  ; but  others  also  occur. 


Note  1 . — Many  of  these  adjectives  from  names  of  places  are  also  used  substantively 
as  Patrial  or  Gentile  Novms  to  designate  the  citizens  of  the  place  : Corinthily  the  Co- 
rinthians ; AthenienseSy  the  Athenians. 

Note  2. — The  Eoman  Gentes  or  clans  were  all  designated  by  adjectives  in  iuSy  as 
gens  CorneliGy  gens  Julia. 

1 The  ending  ester  or  esPris  may  be  formed  by  adding  ter  or  tris  to  es  from  the  suffix 
as  (320) ; but  see  Corssen,  II.,  p.  549. 

2 On  ti-inuSy  i-U-muSy  and  ti-cuSy  see  ta^  may  ca,  320. 

2 When  appended  to  vowel  stems,  these  endings  take  the  place  of  the  stem-vowel : 
Sull-dnus.  In  fact,  anus  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  stem -vowel  with  the  suffix.  So 
in  Mari-dnuSy  but  in  examples  like  this  the  i before  anus  was  finally  treated  as  a part 
of  the  suffix,  making  idnuSy  as  seen  in  Cicerdn-iunuSy  Inus  in  Lat-vnus  oontaius 
from  Lat-ioy  the  stem  of  Latium, 


168 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 


Note  8.— An  adjective  in  ius^  used  substantively,  formed  a part  of  the  name  of  every 
distinguished  Roman,  and  designated  the  gens  to  which  he  belonged ; see  Bomom  Namea^ 

649. 

II.  Adjectives  from  Adjectives. 


332.  Diminutives  from  other  adjectives  generally  end  like 
diminutive  nouns  (321)  in — 


ebrio-lus, 

aureo-lus, 

long-ulus, 

pauper-culus, 


lus,  ulus,  cuius. ^ 

somewhat  drunken^  from 

golden^  “ 

rather  long^  “ 

rather  poor^  “ 


ebrius,  drunken. 
aureus,  golden. 

longus,  long. 

pauper,  poor. 


Note  1.— The  endings  ellus  and  Ulus  also  occur  as  in  nouns  (331,  4) : nov-ellus^ 
‘new,’  from  novus.,  ‘new.’ 

Note  2. — Cuius  is  sometimes  added  to  comparatives:  durius-culus.,  ‘somewhat 
hard,*  from  durior.,  durius,  ‘harder.’ 


III.  Adjectives  from  Verbs  and  from  Roots. 
333,  Verbal  adjectives  generally  end  in — 


bundus. 

cundus,  dus; 

bilis,  tilis, 

silis,  lis; 

ax.® 

mira-bundus. 

wondering.^ 

from 

mira-rl. 

to  wonder. 

mori-bundus. 

dying. 

u 

mori. 

to  die. 

vere-cundus. 

diffident, 

u 

vere-rl. 

to  fear. 

cali-dus. 

warm. 

a 

cale-re. 

to  be  warm. 

pavi-dus, 

fearful. 

(( 

pave-re. 

to  fear. 

ama-bilis. 

worthy  of  love. 

u 

ama-re. 

to  love. 

duc-tilis. 

ductile. 

u 

duc-ere. 

to  lead. 

flec-silis,^  ) 
flexilis,  j 

flexible. 

a 

flect-ere. 

to  turn. 

doci-lis. 

docile. 

u 

doce-re. 

to  teach. 

pugn-ax. 

pugnacious. 

u 

pugna-re. 

to  fight. 

aud-ax. 

daring. 

a 

aude-re. 

to  dare. 

1.  Bundus  and  cundus  have  nearly  the  force  of  the  present  participle ; 
but  bundus  is  somewhat  more  expressive  than  the  participle : laeta-hundus, 
rejoicing  greatly ; and  cundus  generally  denotes  some  characteristic  rather 
than  a single  act  or  feeling : vere-cundus,  diffident. 

2.  Dus  retains  the  simple  meaning  of  the  verb. 

vJ  3.  Bilis,  tilis,  silis,  and  lis  denote  capability,  generally  in  a passive 
i^en8ey*^mdbiliSj  capable  or  worthy  of  being  loved ; sometimes  in  an  active 
sense^erribilis,  terrible,  capable  of  producing  terror. 

1 S^  p.  158.  foot-note  6. 

2 Bundus  is  explained  by  Corssen  and  others  as  formed  by  appending  undus,  endus, 

the  Gerundive  suffix,  to  l)u  =fu,  as  seen  in  ful ; cundus,  by  adding  the  same  suffix  to 
00  {Jca,  330);  see  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  310-312.  On  dus,  see  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  302,  303;  on 
lis,  see  ra,  la,  330;  and  on  hilis,  330,  foot-note  1 ; also  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  166-169;  on  tilis 
and  silis,  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  41,  326.  The  ending  dx  = d-c-s  is  for  d-co-s,  in  which  d wag 
originally  the  stem-vowel  of  an  d-verh  ■'  thus  pugn-d-co-s  pugnd-cs,  pugnd%. 

^ Flec-silis  ^fiect-tilis  §ee  35,  3,  2), 


VERBS. 


169 


Ax  denotes  inclination,  generally  a faulty  oiry^\loqudx^  loquacious. 

^ 6.  Cus,  icus,  ucus,  vus,  uus,  ivus,  tivus,  ticius,  ius,  and  ulus  ^ also 


occur : 


Medi-cus^  ‘healing,’  ‘medical,’  from  mede-rl^  ‘to  heal’ ; am-icus^  ‘friend* 
ly,’  from  am-dre^  ‘ to  love  ’ ; cad-ucus^  ‘ falling,’  ‘ inclined  to  fall,’  from  cad-^ 
‘to  fall’;  sal-vus^  ‘safe,’  from  root  sal^  ‘whole,’  ‘sound’;  noc-uus  and 
noc-lvus^  ‘ hurtful,’  from  noc-ere^  ‘ to  hurt  ’ ; cap-tlvus^  ‘ captive,’  from  cajo-ere.^ 
‘ to  take  ’ ; ficticius^  for Jig-tlcius^  ‘ feigned,’  from fig^  the  root  of fing-ere^  ‘ tc 
form,’  ‘ fashion,’  ‘ feign  ’ ; exim-ius^  ‘ select,’  ‘ choice,’  from  exim-ere^  ‘ tc 
select  out’ ; cred-ulus^  ‘credulous,’  from  cred-ere^  ‘to  believe.’ 


6.  Other  Examples  are — 

Ludi-bundus^  ‘sportive,’  ‘playful,’  from  lude-re^  ‘to  play’;  rldi-bundus.^ 
‘ laughing,’  from  rlde-re^  ‘ to  laugh  ’ ; fd-cundus^  ‘ eloquent,’  from  fd-rl^  ‘ to 
speak ’;  fox  juv-cundus^  ‘pleasant,’  from  juv-dre^  ‘to  aid,’  ‘de- 

light ’ ; avi-dus^  ‘ greedy,’  from  ace-re^  ‘ to  long  for  ’ ; cupi-dus^  ‘ d^irous,’ 
from  cupe-re^  ‘ to  desire  ’ ; timi-dus^  ‘ timid,’  from  time-re^  ‘ to  fear  ’ \'^faci-lis^ 
‘easy,’  ‘capable  of  being  done,’  from  face-re^  ‘to  d.o'‘'^nuhi-Us^  ‘ macjdage- 
able,’  from  nube-re^  ‘ to  marry  ’ \/uti-lis^  ‘ useful,’  from  utl^  ‘ to  use  ’ f crM- 
bilis^  ‘ credible,’  from  crede-re^  ‘ to  believe  ’ )fterri-biUs^  ‘ terrible,’  from  teTif'e- 
re^  ‘ to  terrify  ’ ylaudd-bilis^  ‘ praiseworthy,’  from  laudd-re^  ‘ to  praise  ’ 'p(fer- 
tilis^  ‘fertile,’  from,  fer-re^  ‘to  hooxy^ap-dx^  ‘capacious,’  from  cap-ere^  ‘to 
take^'jfe/i-<xaj,  ‘ tenacious,’  from  ter^er^''  to  bold.’ 


' IV. 

Adjectives  from 

Adverbs 

AND  Prepositions. 

334.  A few  adjectives  are 

formed 

from  adverbs  and  preposi- 

tions  : ^ 

cras-tinus. 

of  to-morroWj 

from 

eras. 

to-morrow. 

contra-rius. 

contrary., 

a 

contra. 

against. 

inter-nus. 

interned., 

u 

inter. 

among.,  within,. 

super-bus. 

haughty., 

(C 

super. 

above. 

super-nus. 

upper.. 

(( 

4( 

a 

FOKMATIOK  OF  VEEBS  BY  SUFFIXES. 

I.  Verbs  from  Nouns  and  Adjectives. 

335.  Verbs  formed  from  nouns  and  adjectives  are  called  De- 
nominatives. They  end  in — 

CONJ.  I.  CONJ.  II.  CONJ.  III.  CONJ.  IV. 

5,  a-re,  eo,  e-re,  uo,  ue-re,^  io,  i-re."^ 

^ UU8,  and  l-vus  are  only  different  forms  of  the  same  suflSx ; uus  was  formed  by 
vocalizinf^  ??  in  eus;  i-vus,  by  adding-  'Vus  to  the  stem-vowel  noc-l-vus,  as  if  from  a 
verb,  noc-ire  = noc-ere.  The  other  endings  are  composed  of  elements  already  explained. 

2 But  adverbs  and  prepositions  are  in  origin  case-forms;  see  304;  307,  note  1. 

3 Conjugation  III.  contains  2yrimitive  verbs  with  a few  derivatives. 

4 According  to  Curtius  and  others,  the  suffix  which  was  added  to  the  stems  of  nouns 
aud  adjectives  to  form  verbs  was  originally  ia,  pronounced  ga^  probably  identical  with  i 


170 

DERIVATION 

OF  WORDS. 

cur-6, 

a-re. 

to  care  for, 

from 

cur-a, 

care. 

fug-6,  , 

a-re, 

to  put  to  flight, 

u 

fug-a. 

flight. 

pugn-6. 

a-re*, 

to  flght, 

u 

pugn-a. 

battle. 

bell-0. 

a-re. 

to  carry  on  war, 

u 

bell-um. 

war. 

don-o. 

a-re, 

to  give, 

u 

ddn-um. 

firm-o, 

a-re, 

to  make  firm. 

(( 

firm-us, 

firm. 

labor-o. 

a-re, 

to  labor. 

labor. 

labor. 

llber-o, 

a-re. 

to  liberate. 

u 

liber. 

free. 

nomin-o. 

a-re, 

to  name. 

u 

ndmen, 

name. 

alb-eo. 

e-re, 

to  he  white. 

(( 

alb-us. 

white. 

clar-o, 

a-re, 

to  make  bright. 

u 

clar-us, 

bright. 

clar-eo. 

e-re, 

to  he  bright. 

u 

u 

u 

flor-eo, 

e-re. 

to  bloom. 

u 

fids. 

flower. 

luc-eo. 

e-re. 

to  shine. 

(( 

lux— luc-s. 

light. 

met-ud, 

ue-re. 

to  fear. 

(( 

met-us. 

fear. 

stat-uo. 

ue-re, 

to  place. 

u 

stat-us, 

position. 

fin-io, 

I-re, 

to  finish. 

u 

fin-is. 

end. 

moll-Id, 

I-re, 

to  soften. 

n 

moll-is. 

soft. 

vest-io. 

I-re, 

to  clothe. 

u 

vest-is. 

garment. 

serv-io, 

I-re, 

to  serve. 

u 

serv-us. 

servant. 

custod-id. 

I-re, 

to  guard. 

(( 

custds, 

guardian 

Note  1.— Denominatives  of  the  second  conjugation  are  intransitive,  but  most  of  the 
others  are  transitive. 

Note  2. — Derivatives,  like  other  verbs,  may  of  course  be  deponent:  dominor^  dr\  ‘to 
domineer,’  from  dominus^  ‘master’;  mlror^  drl^  ‘to  wonder  at,’  from  mirus^  ‘wonder- 
ful’ ; partior^  ‘to  part,’  ‘divide,’  hom  pars ^ partis^  ‘part.’ 

1.  Other  Examples  are — 

Culp-dre^  ‘ to  find  fault,’  from  ‘fault’ ; gldri-drl^  ‘to  boast,’  ‘glory,’ 

from  glori-a^  ‘ glory  ’ ; nov-dre^  ‘ to  make  new,’  from  novus^  ‘ new  ’ ; regn-dre^ 
‘ to  reign,’  from  regnum^  ‘ royal  power  ’ ; lev-dre^  ‘ to  lighten,’  from  leris^ 
‘ light  ’ ; honor-dre^  ‘ to  honor,’  from  honor ^ ‘ honor  ’ ; laud-dre^  ‘ to  praise,’ 
from  laus—  laud-s^  ‘ praise  ’ ; saev-lre^  ‘to  be  fierce,’  from  saevus^  ‘fierce.’ 

the  root  of  l-re^  ‘to  go.’  This  suflSx  added  to  «,  the  original  stem-vowel  of  most  nouns 
and  adjectives,  formed  a-ja^  still  preserved  in  the  ending  ajd-mi  in  a large  class  of  San- 
skrit verbs.  From  this  compound  suflBx  aja  are  derived  in  Latin,  in  the  first  conjuga- 
tion, (1)  ao,  contracted  to  o : eur-o  = cur-ajo  for  ciir-ao  for  cur-aja ; (2)  d : cur-d-s, 
shortened  to  a in  cur-a-i  for  cur-d-t ; — in  the  second  conjugation,  (1)  eo:  luc-eo  for  luo 
ejo  for  Idc-aja;  (2)  e:  luc-e-s^  shortened  to  e in  luc-e-t  for  luc-e-t;  and  in  the  fourth 
conjugation,  (1)  id  and  iu : serr-io  for  serv-ijo  for  serv-aja^  serv-iu-nt  for  serv-iju-nt 
for  serv-aju-nt ; and  (2)  1:  serv-i-s^  shortened  to  i in  serv-i-t  for  serv-l-t;  see  Bopp,  L, 
pp.  207-229;  Curtius,  Verbum,  I.,  pp.  292,  326-348;  Schleicher,  pp.  358-361.  For  an  ob- 
jection to  this  explanation  of  the  a-'verbs^  see  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  738-736.— On  final  o of  the 
first  person,  see  247,  1,  foot-note  5.— The  sufiBlx^'^j^,  added  to  original  i-stems^  formed  ija 
and  gave  rise  to  i-verbs : fluid  = fln-i-jd  = fln-ija ; and  added  to  u-stems^  it  formed 
w-ja  and  gave  rise  to  u-rerbs:  met-ud  = met-u-jd  =.  met-uja.—ln  general,  a-stems  give 
rise  to  a-uerbs : cvr-a^  cur-d-re ; o-stems,  sometimes  to  a-rerbs,  sometimes  to  e-verbs^ 
and  sometimes  to  i-verbs:  firmus^  stem  firmo ^ firm-d-re ; albus,  stem  alb-o,  alb-e-re; 
serrus,  stem  serr-o,  serv-l-re ; consonant  stems,  to  a-verbs,  e-verbs,  or  i-verbs,  after  the 
analogy  of  vowel  stems  : labor  for  labor,  labbr-d-re;  fibs,  fibr-e-re  iov  fibs-e-re  (31, 1); 
custbs,  stem  custbd>^  custbd-l-re. 


VERBS, 


171 


II.  Verbs  from  Verbs.  ^ 


336.  Frequentatives  or  Intensives  denote  repeated^  con- 
tinued,^ or  intense  action.  They  are  generally  of  the  first  conjuga- 
tion, and  are  formed — 


I.  From  the  .stem  of  the  participle  ^ in  tus  or  sus  : 


cant-o,  are,  to  sing^  from 

capt-o,  are,  to  snatch,,  “ 

dat-o,  are,  to  give  often,,  “ 

habit-0,  are,  to  inhabit,  “ 

quass-o,  are,  to  shake  violeiitlg,  “ 

territ-o,  are,  to  frighten  often,  “ 


cantus 

from 

cano. 

to  singf 

captus 

a 

capio, 

to  take. 

datus 

u 

do, 

to  give. 

habitus 

u 

habeo, 

to  have. 

quassus 

u 

quatio, 

to  shake. 

territus 

u 

terreo. 

to  frighten. 

II.  From  the  present  stem,  by  adding  to  and  changing  the  preceding 


vowel  to 

i,  if  not 

1 already  in  that  form  : ^ 

agi-to, 

are, 

to  shake,  from 

ago, 

to  move,  lead. 

clami-to, 

are. 

to  shout  often,  “ 

clamo. 

to  shout. 

rogi-to. 

are. 

to  ask  eagerly,  “ 

rogo, 

to  ask. 

voci-to, 

are. 

to  call  often,  “ 

voco. 

to  call. 

voli-to. 

are. 

to  flit  about,  “ 

volo. 

to  fly. 

Note  1. — Frequentativos  are  sometimes  formed  from  other  frequentativos : ® cantito, 
‘to  sing  often,’  from  canto  from  cano;  dictito,  ‘to  say  often,’  from  dicto  from  dico. 

Note  2.— A few  derivatives  in  esso  and  isso  also  occur.  They  are  intensive  in  force, 
denoting  earnest  rather  than  repeated  action,  and  are  of  the  third  conjugation  : facio y 
facesso,  ‘to  do  earnestly’;  incipio,  incipisso,  ‘to  begin  eagerly.’ 

1.  Other  Examples  are — 

Dicto,  ‘ to  say  often,’  from  died,  ‘ to  say  ’ ; speetd,  ‘ to  behold,’  from  specid, 
Ho  look  ',  factitd.  Ho  do  often,’  from  facid,  Ho  do,’  ‘make’;  imperitd, 
‘ to  command  often,’  from  imperd,  ‘ to  command  ’ ; rapid,  ‘ to  snatch,’  from 
rapid,  ‘ to  seize.’ 

337.  Inceptives  or  Inchoatives  denote  the  beginning  of  the 
action.  They  are  of  the  third  conjugation,  and  end  in  sco  : 


1 Either  directly  or  through  the  medium  of  nouns,  adjectives,  or  participles. 

2 They  are  thus  strictly  denominatives  (335).  Intransitive  verbs,  though  without 
the  participle  in  tus  or  sus,  may  form  frequentatives  after  the  analogy  of  transitive 
verbs : cur  so,  are,  ‘ to  run  about,’  formed  as  if  from  cursus  from  curro,  ‘ to  run  ’ ; ven' 
tito,  are,  ‘ to  come  often,’  formed  as  if  from  ventus,  from  venio,  ‘ to  come.’ 

^ Remember  that  the  stem  of  the  participle  ends  in  o ; thus  cantus  = canto-s.  Ob' 
serve,  therefore,  that  the  verb  canto,  ‘ I sing,’  is  in  form  like  the  stem  of  the  participle. 
Canto  was,  however,  originally  produced  by  adding  ja  to  canta,  the  original  stem  of 
cantus,  making  canta-ja,  cantajo,  cantao,  canto;  see  also  335,  foot-note. 

4 The  formation  from  the  participle  was  doubtless  the  original  method,  but  at  length 
to  was  regarded  as  the  suffix,  and  was  accordingly  added  to  present  stems,  and  as  in  many 
cases  i preceded,  the  stem-vowel  finally  took  this  form  before  the  suffix  to  ; see  Corssen, 
II.,  p.  297. 

5 Sometimes  from  frequentatives  no  longer  in  use : detito,  ‘ to  act  often,’  as  if  from 
detd,  not  in  use,  from  ago ; scripUto,  ‘ to  write  often,’  as  if  from  scripto,  not  in  use, 
from  scribo. 


172 


COMPOSITION  OF  WORDS. 


gel-a-sco. 

to  begin  to  freeze. 

from 

gel-0, 

a-re, 

to  freeze. 

cal-e-sco. 

to  become  warm. 

u 

cal-eo. 

e-re. 

to  be  warm. 

rub-e-sco, 

to  groiu  red, 

u 

rub-eo, 

e-re, 

to  be  red. 

vir-e-sc6, 

to  grow  green. 

u 

vir-eo, 

e-re. 

to  be  green. 

trem-l-sc6. 

to  begin  to  tremble. 

u 

trem-o. 

e-re. 

to  tremble. 

obdorm-I-sco, 

to  fall  asleep. 

obdorm-io. 

I-re, 

to  sleep. 

338.  Desideratives  denote  a desire  to  perform  the  action. 
They  are  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  and  end  in  turio  or  surio  : 


par-turio,  Ire,  to  strive  to  bring  forth^  from  pario,  to  bring  forth. 

e-surio,  Ire,  to  desire  to  eat^  “ edo,  to  eat.^ 

339.  Diminutives  denote  a feeble  action.^  They  are  of  the  first 
conjugation,  and  end  in  iilo : 

cant-illd,  to  sing  feebly.,  from  canto,  to  sing. 

conscrib-illd,  to  scribble,  “ conscribo,  to  write. 

Note. — For  the  Derivation  op  Adverbs,  see  304. 


SECTION  III. 

COMPOSITION  OF  WORDS. 

340.  New  words  may  be  formed — 

I.  By  the  union  of  two  or  more  words  under  one  principal  accent, 
without  change  of  meaning : 

Res  puotica,  respublica,  republic ; agrl  cultura,  agricultura,  agriculture ; 
juris  consultus,  jurisconsultus,  lawyer,  one  skilled  in  the  law ; quern  ad  mo- 
dum, quemadmodum,  in  what  way — lit.,  to  what  measure. 

Note.— These  are  compounds  only  in  form.  The  separate  words  retain  in  a great 
measure  their  identity  both  in  form  and  in  meaning,  and  may  in  fact  be  written  separately. 
Res  publica  is  the  approved  form.  Other  examples  of  this  class  are  : legis-lCitor,  law- 
giver; pater-familids,  father  of  a family ; sendtus-consultum,  decree  of  the  senate ; hac- 
tenus, thus  far;  saepe-numerd,  often  in  number;  bene-facio,  to  do  well,  benefit;  male- 
dico, to  revile;  satis-facio,  to  satisfy,  do  enough  for;  animum-ad-verto,  anim-ad-verto, 
to  notice,  turn  the  mind  to. 

II.  By  prefixing  an  indeclinable  particle  to  an  inflected  word, 
generally  with  some  change  of  meaning : 

Ad-sum,  to  be  present ; de-pond,  to  lay  down  ; re-pdnd,  to  replace  ; e-disco, 
to  learn  by  heart ; im-memor,  unmindful ; per-facilis,  very  easy  ; prd-cdnsul, 

1 These  are  the  only  desideratives  in  common  use,  but  a few  others  occur : cenci-PuriO, 
‘to  desire  to  dine,’  from  ceno,  ‘to  dine’;  emp-turio,  ‘to  desire  to  purchase,’  from 
‘to  purchase  ’ ; nup-turio,  ‘ to  desire  to  marry,’  from  nubo.,  ‘ to  marry.’  They  were  prob- 
ably formed  originally  through  the  medium  of  a verbal  noun  in  tor  or  sor  (336,  foot-note 
2) : thus,  ceno,  cend-tor,  ‘ one  who  dines  ’ ; cend-tor-i-re  = cend-tur-l-re  {o  changed  to 
ii),  ‘to  desire  to  dine’;  emO,  emp-tor,  '-a  purchaser’;  emp-tor-ire  = emp-tur-l-re,  ‘to 
desire  to  purchase.’ 

Trobabiy  denominatives  formed  from  verb-stems  through  dimmutive  verbal  nouns- 


mum. 


m 


proconsul,  one  acting  for  a consul;  inter-regnum^  interregnum,  an  interval 
between  two  reigns. 

III.  By  uniting  two  or  more  simple  stems  or  roots,  and  adding 
appropriate  inflectional  sufiixes  when  needed : ^ 

Igni-color.,^  fire-colored  ; grandi-aexo-s.^  grand-aevus.,  a,  tim.,  of  great  age  ; 
omni-potent-s.,  omnipotens.^  omnipotent ; mdgno-animo-s^  mdgnanimvs.^  a,  -ww, 
great-souled  ; iuhi-cen.,  trumpeter ; arti-fec-s.,  artifex.^  artificer ; alio-qul.,  ali- 
quis^’^  any  one. 

1.  In  the  first  element  of  the  compound  observe — 

1)  That  the  stem-vowel  generally  takes  the  form  of  i : capro-corno-s^ 
capri-cornus  ; tuba-cen.^  tubi-cen. 

2)  That  consonant  stems  sometimes  assume  i : Jiondr-i-fico-s.,  honorificus., 
<2,  um.,  honorable. 

3)  That  the  stem-vowel  disappears  before  another  vowel ; mag  no-animus., 
magnanimus. 

2.  The  stem-ending  and  the  inflectional  ending  of  the  second  element 
generally  remain  unchanged  in  the  compound  ; see  examples  above.  But 
observe — 


1)  That  they  are  sometimes  slightly  changed  : aequo-nocti.,  aequi-noctio-m.,^ 
aequinoctium.,  equinox ; multa-fdrma,  multi-formis.,  with  many  forms. 

2)  That  a verbal  root  or  stem  may  be  the  second  element  in  a compound 
noun  or  adjective  : tubi-cen  {cen  = mn.,  the  root  of  cano.,  to  sing),  trumpeter; 
iHi-fer  {fer.,  root  oi  ferd.,  to  bear),  death-hearing. 

Note. — The  words  classed  under  II.  and  III.  are  regarded  as  real  compounds,  but 
those  under  III.  best  illustrate  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  genuine  compounds,  as 
they  are  formed  from  compound  stems  and  have  a meaning  which  could  not  be  expressed 
by  the  separate  words.  Thus,  animus  means  a great  soul.,  but  magnanimus 

means  haring  a great  soul.^ 


341.  In  CoMPOTJND  Nouns,  the  first  part  is  generally  the  stem 
of  a noun  or  adjective,  sometimes  an  adverb  or  preposition;  and 
the  second  part  is  the  stem  of  a noun,  or  a stem  from  a verbal  root : 


arti-fex,  artist.,  from 

capri-cornus,  capricorn.,  “ 

aequi-noctium,  equinox.,  “ 

ne-mo,  nobody.,  “ 

pro-nomen,  pronoun.,  “ 


arti-fac  in  ars  and  facio, 

capro-cornu  “ caper  “ cornu, 

aequo-nocti  “ aequus  “ nox. 

ne-homon  “ ne  “ homo, 

pro-nomen  “ pro  “ nomen. 


^ Thus  igni-color  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  stems  without  inflectional  sufiix; 
but  in  grand-aeru-s,  the  suflBx  s is  added  to  the  stem  grandaerb.,  compounded  of  grandi 
and  aerb. 

2 Literally,  any  other  one. 

3 Ti,  the  stem-ending  of  nox.,  becomes  tib.,  to  which  is  added  the  nominative-ending  m. 
^ Class  II.  occupies  a position  intermediate  between  I.  and  III.  Some  compounds 

of  particles  with  verbs,  for  example,  have  developed  a meaning  quite  distinct  from  that 
denoted  by  the  separate  parts,  while  others  have  simply  retained  the  ordinary  meaning 
of  those  parts. 


174 


COMPOSITION  OF  WORDS. 


1.  Compounds  in  ex,  dex,  fex,  cen,  cida,  and  cola  deserve  special 
notice : 

Bemo-ex.,  r~miex^"^  oarsman  ; jus-dex^  judex^^  judge  ; arti-fex^  artist ; tlbia- 
cen.,  tlbl-cen^  flute-player ; homon-clda^  liomi-clda^^  manslayer ; agri-cola^'^ 
husbandman,  one  who  tills  the  soil. 

Note. — Ex  (for  ag-^  is  from  the  root  ag  in  ag^.,  to  drive,  impel;  dex  (for  dic-s\ 
from  die  in  dico^  to  make  known ; fex  (for  fae-s).,  from  fae  in  facio.,  to  make ; cen.,  from 
2an  in  cano.,  to  sing;  clda  (for  caed-a).,  from  caed  in  caedo.,  to  cut,  slay;  cola  (for  col-a\ 
from  col  in  colo.,  to  cultivate. 

342.  In  Compound  Adjectives,  the  first  part  is  generally  the 
stem  of  a noun  or  adjective,  sometimes  an  adverb  or  preposition; 
and  the  second  is  the  stem  of  a noun  or  adjective,  or  a stem  from 
a verbal  root : 

leti-fer,  death-hearing.,  from  leti-fer  in  letum  and  fero. 

magn-animus,  magnanimous “ magno-animo  “ magnus  “ animus, 

per-facilis,  very  easy.,  “ per-facili  “ per  “ facilis. 

1.  Compounds  in  ceps,  fer,  ger,  dicus,  ficus,  and  volus  deserve 
notice : 

Parti-ceps.,  taking  part ; auri-fer.,  gold-bearing ; armi-ger.,  carrying  arms ; 
foM-dicus.,  predicting  fate  ; mlri-ficus.,  causing  wonder ; bene-volus.,  well- 
wishing. 

Note.— (for  cap-s)  is  from  the  root  cap  in  capio.,  to  take;  /<?/•,  from  fer  in  ferO., 
to  bear;  ger.,  from  ger  in  gero.,  to  carry;  dicus  (for  dic-o-s).,  from  die  in  died.,  to  make 
known ; ficus  (for  fac-o-s).,  from  fac  in  facio.,  to  make ; volus  (for  vol-o-s).,  from  vol  in 
void.,  to  wish. 

343.  Compound  Nouns  and  Adjectives  are  divided  according 
to  signification  into  three  classes : 

I.  Determinative  Compounds,  in  which  the  second  part  is  qualified  by 
the  first : 

Inter-rex.,  interrex ; merl-diesf  midday ; bene-volus.,  well-wishing ; per- 
magnus., very  great ; in-dlgnus.,  unworthy. 

II.  Objective  Compounds,  in  which  the  second  part  is  limited  by  the 
first  as  object : 

Prln-cepjs.,  taking  the  first  place;  helli-ger.,  waging  war;  ju-dex.,  judge, 
one  who  dispenses  (makes  known)  justice  ; liomi-cida.,  one  who  slays  a man ; 
agri-cola.,  one  w'ho  tills  the  field.  See  other  examples  in  343,  1. 

III.  Possessive  Compounds,  in  origin  mostly  adjectives.  They  desig« 

1 0 is  dropped  in  remex,  and  s in  judex;  see  37 ; 36,  8,  note  3. 

2 A,  weakened  to  i,  unites  with  the  preceding  i,  forming  1. 

3 27' dropped,  and  o weakened  to  i;  see  36,  3,  note  3. 

4 The  stem-vowel  o of  agro  is  weakened  to  i:  agri;  see  33. 

^ From  medius  and  dies. 


VERBS. 


175 


nate  qualities  or  attributes  as  possessed  by  some  person  or  thing,  and  are 
often  best  rendered  by  supplying  having  or  possessing  : 

Aeni-pes.,  having  bronze  feet ; ^ celeri-pes.^  swift-footed ; dli-pes.,  wing-foot- 
ed, having  wings  for  feet ; mdgn-animus.^  having  a great  soul ; un-animus.^ 
having  one  mind;  long-acvus.^  of  great  age,  having  a long  life. 

344.  Compound  Verbs. — Verbs  in  general  are  compounded 
only  with  prepositions,  originally  adverbs : ^ 

Ah-eo.^  to  go  away ; ex-ed.,  to  go  out ; prod-eo.,  to  go  forth ; con-voco.,  to  call 
together ; de-cido.^  to  fall  off ; prae-dico.,  to  foretell ; re-duco^  to  lead  back ; 
re-Jicio.)  to  repair,  to  make  anew.» 

1.  Facio  and  fw  may  also  unite  with  verbal  stems  in  e : 

Cale-facio.^  to  make  w^arm ; cale-flo.,  to  be  made  warm,  become  warm ; 
Idhe-facio.!  to  cause  to  totter  ; pate-faeio.^  to  open,  cause  to  be  open. 

2.  Verbs  are  often  united  with  other  words  in  writing  without  strictly 
forming  compounds : 

Manu  mitto  or  manu-mitto.,  to  emancipate,  let  go  from  the  hand ; satis 
facio  or  satis-facio.,  to  satisfy,  do  enough  for ; animum  ad-verto  or  anim-a<E 
verto.,  to  notice,  turn  the  mind  to. 

3.  Verbs  in  fico  and  facto.,  like  the  following,  are  best  explained  not 
as  compounds  but  as  denominatives  : ^ 

Aedi-fico.,  to  build,  from  aedifex ; amplifico.,'^  to  enlarge ; calefacto.,  to 
make  warm,  from  cale-f actus, 

4.  Verbs  compounded  with  prepositions  often  undergo  certain  vowel- 
changes  : 

1)  Short  a and  e generally  become  i:  habeo.,  ad-hibeo ; teneo.,  con-tineo.  But  a 
sometimes  becomes  e ov  u:  carpo.,  de-cerpo;  calco.,  con-culco, 

2)  Ae  becomes  I : caedo.,  in-cido. 

3)  Au  generally  becomes  b ov  u:  plaudo.,  ex-pdbdo;  claudo.,  in-cludo. 

5.  Fokm  and  Meaning  of  Prepositions  in  Composition. — The  following 
facts  are  added  for  reference : 

A,  ab,  abs. — 1.  Form  : d before  m and  -y,  and  sometimes  before  f ; abs 
before  y,  and,  wdth  the  loss  of '5,  also  before  p^^  au  in  au-ferb  and  au- 
fugio; ab  before  the  other  consonants, >nd  before  vowels. — 2.  Meaning: 
(1)  ‘ away,’  ^ off  ’ : d-mitto.,  to  send  away  ; abs-condo.,  to  hide  away  ; as-portb.^ 

1 Observe  the  force  of  the  compound.  Aenus  pes  means  a brazen  foot.,  but  aeni-pes 
means  having  brazen  feet ; see  also  340,  III.,  note. 

2 The  words  thus  formed  are  strictly  compounds  of  verbs  vcith  adverbs.,  as  the  origi- 
nal type  of  these  compounds  was  formed  before  the  adverb  became  a preposition. 

3 Observe  in  these  examples  the  strict  adverbial  use  of  the  particles  ab,  ex,  etc.,  away, 
out,  etc.  Prepositions,  on  the  other  hand,  always  denote  relations,  and  are  auxiliary 
to  the  case-endings ; see  307,  foot-note. 

4 In  some  of  these  the  primitive  is  not  found  in  actual  use. 

* As  abs-pello,  as-pello,  to  drive  away. 


176 


PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOSITION. 


to  carry  off ; au-fugid^  to  flee  away  ; db-sum^  to  be  away  ; db-eo^  to  go  away ; 
ab-jicio  or  db-icid^^  to  throw  away ; (2)  in  adjectives,  generally  negative : 
d-mens^  without  mind,  frantic ; ab-similis^  unlike. 

Ad. — 1.  Form  : ad  before  vowels,  and  before  J,  /,  A,  y,  7?^,  ??,  and 
sometimes  before  and  5,  rarely  before  p and  t ; d assimilated  before 

c,  generally  before  p and  and  sometimes  before  r,  and  s ; gener- 

ally dropped  before  gn^  sc,  sp^  and  st.^ — 2.  Meanino  : ‘ to,’  ‘ toward,’  ‘ to 
one’s  self’ ; ‘ on,’  ‘ at,’  ‘ near,’  ‘ by ’ ; ‘ besides ’ : ad-duco^  to  lead  to ; ac-cidd^ 
bo  fall  to,  happen ; ad-moved^  to  move  toward ; ac-cipib^  to  receive,  take  to 
one’s  self ; ac-cingo^  to  gird  on ; ad-ldtrb  or  dl-lcCtrb^  to  bark  at ; ad-sum^ 
to  be  present  or  near ; ad-sto  or  a-stb^  to  stand  near,  to  stand  by ; ad-disco^ 
to  learn  besides. 

Ante. — 1.  Form:  unchanged  except  in  anti-cipb^  ‘to  take  beforehand,’ 
and  in  composition  with  sto  : ante-sto  or  anti-sto^  to  stand  before. — 2.  Mean- 
iNo:  ‘before,’  ‘beforehand’ : ante-currb^  to  run  before;  anie-habeo^  to  prefer 
' — lit.^  to  have  or  hold  before. 

Circum. — 1.  Form  : generally  unchanged,  but  m is  sometimes  dropped 
in  compounds  of  to  go  : cirmm-eb  or  circu-eo^  to  go  around.— 2.  Mean- 
ing : ‘ around,’  ‘ about  ’ : circum-mittb^  to  send  around. 

Com.  3 — 1.  Form  : com  before  5,  p ; co  before  vowels,^  A,  and  gn , » con 
or  col  before  1;  cor  before  r ; con  before  the  other  consonants. — 2.  Mean- 
ing : (1)  ‘ together,’  ‘ with,’  in  various  senses  : com-bibo^  to  drink  together; 
com-mittb^  to  let  go  together ; co-eb^  to  go  together ; col-loquor^  to  talk  with ; 
cbn-fligb^  to  contend  with;  (2)  ‘completely,’  ‘thoroughly’  ; cbn-jicib^  to  com- 
plete, make  completely ; con-ciib^  to  rouse  thoroughly ; cbn-sumb^  to  con- 
sume, take  wholly  ; con-densus^  very  dense. 

E,  ex. — 1.  Form:  ex  before  vowels  and  before  c,  7z,  />,«  5,^  and  with 

assimilation  before  //»  e before  the  other  consonants. » — 2.  Meaning:  (1) 
‘ out,’  ‘ forth,’  ‘ without,’  implying  ‘freedom  from  ’ : ex-eb^  to  go  out,  go  forth ; 
ex-cidb^  to  fall  out ; e-db^  to  put  forth  ; ex-sanguis^  without  blood,  bloodless  ; 
ex-onerb^  to  unload,  disburden  ; (2)  ‘ thoroughly,’  ‘ completely,’  ‘ successful- 
ly ’ : ex-urb^  to  burn  up  ; e-discb^  to  learn  by  heart ; ef-ficib^  to  effect,  do  suC' 
cessfully ; e-durus^  very  hard. 

In.— 1.  Form  : n sometimes  assimilated  before  7,  often  before  and  r; 

1 See  foot-note  1,  p.  20. 

2 Sometimes  retained  : ad-gnbsco  ov  d-gnbsco ; ad-sto  or  a-stb. 

3 An  earlier  form  for  cum. 

4 A contraction  often  takes  place : co-ago.,  cb-go.  Com^  is  sometimes  retained  before 
e or  and  co  or  con  is  used  before  i—ji:  com-edb.^  com-itor.,  co-iciO  or  con-icio  = 
con-iicib  or  con-jicib  ; see  foot-note  1,  p.  20. 

* Co  also  appears  in  cb-nectb.,  cb-ntreb.,  cb-mtor.,  and  cb-nubinm. 

® But  e-pbtb  and  e-pbtus;  ex-scendo  or  e-scendb. 

Sis  sometimes  dropped  after  x : exspecto  or  ex-pecto. 

® (7  before  / is  not  recommended ; ef-fcrb  is  better  than  ec-fc.ro. 

3 But  ex-lex. 

10  Im  is  the  approved  form  before  &,  _p,  and  m,  especially  in  im-perCdor.,  im-pe^'O.  and 
im-perium. 


PREPOSlTlOm  m COMPOSITION, 


m 


often  changed  to  m before  h and^  / in  other  situations  unchanged. — 2.  Mean- 
ing : ‘ in,’  ‘ into,’  ‘ on,'  ‘ at,’  ‘ against  ’ ; in-colo,^  to  dwell  in ; in-eo,,  to  go 
into ; im-migro^  to  move  into ; in-nltor,,  to  lean  on  ; in-tueor^  to  look  at ; 
ir-rlded,,  to  laugh  at ; im-pugno,,  to  fight  against. 

Inter. — 1.  Form  : unchanged,  except  in  intel-legd^  to  understand. — 2. 
Meaning  : ‘ between,’  sometimes  involving  interruption^  ‘ together  ’ : inter- 
venio,, to  come  between,  intervene ; inter-d/ico,,  to  forbid,  interdict ; inter- 
necto,, to  tie  together. 

Ob. — 1.  Form  : h assimilated  before  <?,  /,  p',  and  p ; dropped  in  o-mitto,, 
to  omit,  and  in  operio,,  to  cover ; in  other  situations  generally  unchanged.^ — 
2.  Meaning:  (1)  ‘ before,’  ‘in  the  way,’  ‘ toward,’  ‘against,’  especially  of  an 
obstruction  or  opposition  : of-fero,,  to  bring  before ; ob-sto^  to  stand  in  the  way ; 
oc-curro,,  to  run  toward,  run  to  meet ; op-pugno,,  to  attack,  fight  against ; (2) 
‘ down,’  ‘ completely  ’ ; oc-cldo^  to  cut  down,  kill ; op-primo,,  to  press  down, 
to  overwhelm. 

Per. — 1.  Form:  generally  unchanged,  but  r is  sometimes  assimilated  be- 
fore and  is  dropped  before  j in  compounds  of  juro,,  as  pe-jero,,^  to  swear 
falsely. — 2.  Meaning  : ‘ through,’  ‘ thoroughly,’  sometimes  in  a bad  sense  with 
the  idea  of  breahing  through,,  disregarding : per-legd,,  to  read  through;  per- 
disco,, to  learn  thoroughly  ; per-fidus,,  perfidious,  breaking  faith. 

Post.^ — 1 . Form  : unchanged,  except  in  pb-rnerium,,  the  open  space  on 
either  side  of  the  city-wall,  and  pos-merididnus,^  of  the  afternoon. — 2.  Mean- 
ing : ‘ after,’  ‘ behind  ’ : post-habeb,,  to  place  after,  have  after,  esteem  less. 

Pro,  prod. — 1.  Form:  pro  is  the  usual  form,  both  before  vowels  and 
before  consonants ; prod,,  the  original  form,  is  retained  in  a few  words  before 
vowels.® — 2.  Meaning:  ‘forth,’  ‘forward,’  ‘before,’  ‘for’:  prbd-eb,,  to  go 
forth  or  forward ; prb-currb,,  to  run  forward ; prb-pugnb,,  to  fight  in  front  of, 
fight  for;  pro-hibeb,,  to  hold  aloof,  i.  e.,  out  of  one’s  reach,  hence  to  prohibit ; 
yrb-mittb,,  to  send  forth,  to  hold  out  as  a promise,  to  promise. 

Sub. — 1.  Form:  b assimilated  before  /,  g,  and/),  and  often  before  m 
and  r ; dropped  before  sp  ; in  other  situations  unchanged.  The  form  subs,, 
shortened  to  sus,,  occurs  in  a few  words : sus-cipib,,  sus-pendb. — 2.  Meaning  : 
‘ under,’  ‘ down,’  ‘ from  under,’  ‘ up  ’ ; ‘in  place  of,’  ‘ secretly  ’ ; ‘ somewhat,’ 
‘ slightly  ’ : ’’  sub-eo,  to  go  under ; sub-labor,,  to  slip  down ; sub-ducb,  to  draw 
from  under,  withdraw ; sus-cipib,  to  undertake ; sus-citb,  to  lift  up,  arouse ; 


1 It  is  used  in  several  compounds  referring  to  death:  inte/r-eo,  to  die;  inter-jicio, 
to  kill. 

^ Obs  seems  to  occur  in  a few  words : obs-oUsco,  os-ten  do  for  obs-tendo  (b  dropped), 
though  these  words  are  sometimes  otherwise  explained ; thus  ob-solesco,  as  a compound 
oi.soUsco  from  soleO, 

3 As  per-lego,,  pel-lego  ; per-Ucio,,  pel-licio  ; but  per  is  preferable. 

^ ¥ot  per-juro, 

® Post-merldidnus  is  also  used;  pb-merldidnus  is  not  approved,  though  it  occurs. 

* As  in  prbd-eo,  prbd-igo,  prbd-igus,  and  before  e in  the  compound  of  sum : prod 
es,  prbd-est,^  etc. 

Mostly  in  adjectives : sub-abswrdiis,  somewhat  absurd  ; sub-dolus,  somewhat  crafty 
sub-impudens,  somewhat  impudent;  sub-invlsus,  somewhat  odious. 

13 


;78 


PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOSITION. 


mh-stituo^  to  put  in  place  of,  to  substitute ; sub-ripid^  to  take  away  secretly ; 
mb-rldeo^  to  smile,  laugh  slightly  ; sub-dijicilis^  somewhat  difficult. 

Trans. — 1.  Form:  it  generally  drops  s before  5,  and  it  often  drops  m 
before  d^  yV  ^ otherwise  unchanged. — 2.  Meaning  : ‘ across,’ 

‘ through,’  ‘ completely  ’ : trdns-curro,  to  run  across ; trd-duco^  to  lead  across ; 
trda-silio^  to  leap  across ; trdns-igo^  to  transact ; to  finish,  do  completely  or 
thoroughly — to  drive  through. 

6.  Form  and  Meaning  op  the  Inseparable  Prepositions. — The  follow 
ing  facts  are  added  for  reference : 

Ambi,  amb.2 — 1.  Form:  amh  before  vowels;  amhi^  am^  or  before 
consonants. — 2.  Meaning  : ‘ around,’  ‘ on  both  sides,’  ‘ in  two  directions  ’ : 
amb-io^^  to  go  round ; amb-igo^  to  act  in  two  ways,  move  in  diiferent  direc- 
tions, to  hesitate  ; am-puto^  to  cut  around  or  off;  an-qulro^  to  search  round. 

Dis,  di. — 1.  Form  : dU  beforec,  y?,  before  s followed  by  a vowel,  and, 
with  assimilation,  before  f ; but  dir  for  dis  before  a vowel  or  A / dl  in  most 
other  situations  ; but  both  dis  and  dl  occur  before y.» — 2.  Meaning  : * apart,’ 
‘ asunder,’  ^ ‘ between,’  sometimes  negative  ^ and  sometimes  intensive : dis- 
tineo^ to  hold  apart ; dl-duco^  to  lead  apart,  divide  ; dif-fugio^  to  fl.ee  asunder, 
or  in  different  directions ; dir-imo^  to  take  in  pieces,  destroy ; dis-sentio^  to 
think  differently,  dissent;  dl-judicd^  to  judge  between;  dis-pliced^  to  dis- 
please, not  to  please  ; dif-jicilis^  difficult,  not  easy ; dl-laudd^  to  praise  highly. 

In. — 1.  Form:  n dropped  before  gn ; otherwise  like  the  preposition  in. 
— 2.  Meaning  : ‘ not,’  ‘ un  ’ : l-gnbsco.,  not  to  know,  not  to  recollect,  to  par- 
don ; im-memor.^  unmindful ; in-imlcus.,  unfriendly. 

Por,  for  port.® — 1.  Form:  r assimilated  before  I and  5/  in  other  situa- 
tions, por. — 2.  Meaning  : ‘ forth,’  ‘ forward,’  ‘ near’ : pol-liceor.,  to  hold  forth, 
offer,  promise ; pos-sideo.,  to  possess ; ® por-rigo.,  to  hold  out  or  forth,  to  offer. 

Red,  re.— 1.  Form:  red  before  vowels,  before  A,  and  in  red-do ; re  in 
other  situations. — 2,  Meaning:  ‘back,’  ‘again,’  ‘ in  return ’:  lo  red-eo.,  to  go 
back ; re-ficio.,  to  repair,  make  again  ; red-amo.,  to  love  in  return. 

Sedjii  se. — 1.  Form:  sec?  before  vowels ; sf  before  consonants. — 2.  Mean- 
ing : ‘ apart,’  ‘ aside  ’ : se-cedo.,  to  go  apart,  secede ; se-pono.,  to  put  aside  or  apart. 

Note. — For  the  Composition  of  Adverbs,  see  304,  I.,  2 ; 304,  II.,  1,  note ; 
304,  IV.,  note  2. 

1 Or  before  i =j  orji;  see  foot-note  1,  p.  20. 

2 Compare  amho.,  both,  and  around,  on  both  sides. 

® An  before  c,  g,  /,  and  t. 

4 For  amb-eO. 

® Dis-jungd.^  dl-judicO. 

® Both  literally  ‘ aparV  in  respect  to  place  or  position,  and  figuratively  ‘ apart''  In 
sentiment  or  opinion. 

Especially  in  adjectives:  unequal ; unlike. 

® Greek  Tropru  Trport,  irpog,  to,  toward,  see  Curtius,  381. 

® To  sit  near  send  so  to  control. 

Sometimes  negative,  no%  un- : re-slgno.,  to  unseal;  re~clf(dO.,  to  open. 

Probably  an  old  ablative  of  sul  and  identical  with  sed.  but. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES.  179 


PART  THIRD. 

S Y IT  T A X . 


CHAPTER  I. 

SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES. 

I.  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES 

345.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

346.  A sentence  is  a combination  of  words  expressing  either  a 
single  thought  or  two  or  more  thoughts. 

347.  A Simple  Sentence  expresses  a single  thought : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  {built)  the  world.  Cic. 

348.  A Complex  Sentence  expresses  one  leading  thought  with 
one  or  more  dependent  thoughts : 

Donee  eris  felix,  multos  numerabis  amicos,  m long  as  you  shall  be  prosper^ 
ouSj  you  will  number  many  friends.  Ovid. 

Note  1.— In  this  example  two  simple  sentences— (1)  ^ you  will  be  prosperous^  and 
(2)  ‘ you  will  number  many  friends'' — are  so  united  that  the  first  only  specifies  the  time 
of  the  second : You  will  number  many  friends  (when  ?),  so  long  as  you  shall  be  pros- 
perous. The  parts  thus  united  are  called  Clauses  or  Members. 

Note  2. — The  part  of  the  complex  sentence  which  makes  complete  sense  of  itself— 
multos  numerabis  amicbs — is  called  the  Principal  or  Independent  Clause;  and  the 
part  which  is  dependent  upon  it — donee  eris  fellx — is  called  the  Subordinate  or  De- 
pendent Clause. 

349.  A Compound  Sentence  expresses  two  or  more  independ- 
ent thoughts : 

Sol  ruit  et  montes  umbrantur,  the  sun  hastens  to  its  setting  and  the  moun- 
tains  are  shaded.  V erg. 

350.  A Declarative  Sentence  has  the  form  of  an  assertion : 

Miltiades  accusatus  est,  Miltiades  was  accused-.  Nep. 

351.  An  Interrogative  Sentence  has  the  form  of  a ques- 
tion: 

Quis  loquitur,  who  speaks?  Ter.  Quis  non  paupertatem  extimescit. 
who  does  not  fear  poverty  ? Cic.  Quid  ais,  what  do  you  say  ? Ter.  Ec- 


180 


SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES. 


quid^  animadvertis  silentium,  do  you  not  notice  the  silence?  Cic.  Qualis  est 
what  hind  of  an  oration  is  it?  Cic.  Quot  sunt,  how  many  are  there? 
Plant.  UbI  sunt,  where  are  they  ? Cic.  Ubinam  gentium  sumus,  where  in 
the  icorld  are  we?  Cic.  Visne  fortunam  experiri  meam,  do  you  wish  to  try 
my  fortune?  Cic.  Nonne  nobilitari  volunt,  do  they  not  wish  to  be  renowned? 
Cic.  Num  igitur  peccamus,  are  we  then  at  fault  ? Cic. 

1.  Interrogative  Words. — Interrogative  sentences  generally  contain  some 
interrogative  word— either  an  interrogative  pronoun,  adjective,  or  adverb,  or 
one  of  the  interrogative  particles : 2 -ne^  nbnne^  num  ; see  examples  above. 

Note  1. — Questions  with  -ne  ask  for  information:  Scribitne,,  ‘is  he  writing?’  Ne 
is  sometimes  appended  to  utrum^  num^  or  an^  without  affecting  their  meaning,  and  some- 
times inserted  in  the  clause  after  utrum : 

Numne  ferre  anna  debuerunt,  ought  they  to  hare  borne  arms  ? Cic.  Utrum  tace- 
amne,  an  praedicem,  shall  I be  silent^  or  shall  I speak  f Ter. 

- Note  2.— Questions  with  nbnne  expect  the  answer  yes:  Nbnne  scribit^  ‘is  he  not 
writing?’ 

Note  3.— Questions  with  num  expect  the  answer  no : Num  scribit.^  ‘is  he  writing?' 

Note  4. — For  questions  with  an^  see  353,  note  4. 

2.  The  particle  -ne  is  always  appended  to  some  other  word,  generally  to 
the  emphatic  word  of  the  sentence,  i.  e.,  to  the  word  upon  which  the  ques- 
tion especially  turns ; appended  to  non^  it  forms  nbnne : 

Visne  experTrl,  do  you  wish  to  try  f Cic.  Tune  id  veritus  es,  did  you  fear  this  f 
Cic.  Omnisne  pecunia  soluta  est,  has  all  the  money  been  paidf  Cic.  Hbcinest 
(=  hocine  est^)  ofiBcium  patris,  is  this  the  duty  of  a father  f Ter.  TJnquamne  vidisti, 
hoA:e  you  ever  seen  ? Cic.  Nbnne  volunt,  do  they  not  wish  ? Cic. 

3.  Sometimes  no  interrogative  word  is  used,  especially  in  impassioned 
discourse : 

Creditis,  do  you  belieref  Yerg.  Ego  n5n  potero,  shall  I not  be  able?  Cic. 

4.  An  emphatic  tandem^  meaning  indeed^  pray^  then^  often  occurs  in  inter- 
rogative sentences : 

Quod  genus  tandem  est  istud  gloriae,  what  kind  of  glory  is  that^  pray  f Cic. 

Note  1. — Nam^  appended  to  an  interrogative,  also  adds  emphasis: 

Numnam  haec  audivit,  did  he  hear  this^  pray  f Ter. 

Note  2. — For  Two  InterrogaUres  in  the  same  clause,  and  for  an  InterrogaUre  with 
tantus^  see  454,  3 and  4. 

352.  Answers. — Instead  of  replying  to  a question  of  fact  with 
a simple  particle  meaning  yes  or  no^  the  Latin  usually  repeats  the 
verb  or  some  emphatic  word,  often  with  prorsus^  mrb^  and  the  like, 
or  if  negative,  with  non : 

Dixitne  causam,  did  he  state  the  cause?  Dixit,  he  stated  it,  Cic.  Pos- 
sumusne  tuti  esse,  m/i  we  he  safe?  Non  possumus,  we  can  not,  Cic. 

1 Ecquid,,  though  the  neuter  accusative  of  an  interrogative  pronoun,  has  become  ii 
effect  a mere  particle  with  the  force  of  nbnne, 

2 See  311,  8,  foot-note. 

3 See  3 7,  note. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES. 


181 


Note  1. — Sometimes  the  simple  particle  is  used — affirmatively,  etiam^iia^  verd^ 

:Terte^  etc. ; uegatively,  non^  minime.,  etc. 

Venitne,  has  he  come  f Non,  no.  Plaut. 

Note  2. — Sometimes,  without  an  actual  repetition  of  the  emphatic  word,  some  equi- 
valent expression  is  used : 

Tuam  vestem  detraxit  tibi,  did  he  strip  off  your  coat  f Factum,  he  did—Wt..,  done.^ 
for  it  was  done.  Ter. 

353.  Double  or  Disjunctive  Questions  offer  a choice  or  alter^ 
native^  and  generally  take  one  of  the  following  forms  : 

1.  The  first  clause  has  utrum  or  -Tie,  and  the  second  an: 

Utrum  ea  vestra  an  nostra  culpa  est,  is  that  your  fault  or  ours?  Cic. 
Eomamne  venio  an  hie  maneo,  do  I go  to  Rome.,  or  do  I remain  here  f Cic. 

2.  The  first  clause  omits  the  particle,  and  the  second  has  «t?,  or  anne : 

Eloquar  an  sileam,  shall  I utter  it.,  or  Iceep  silence?  Verg.  Gabinio  dicam 

anne  Pompeio,  to  Gabinius.,  shall  I say.,  or  to  Pompey  ? Cic. 

Note  1. — Other  forms  are  rare.i 

Note  2. — Utrum  sometimes  stands  before  a disjunctive  question  with  -ne  in  the  first 
clause  and  an  in  the  second : 

Utrum,  taceamne,  an  praedicem,  which^  shall  1 be  silent.,  or  shall  I speak?  Ter. 

Note  3. — When  the  second  clause  is  negative,  the  particle  generally  unites  with  the 
negative,  giving  annbn  or  necne : 

Sunt  haec  tua  verba  necne,  are  these  yov/r  words  or  not  1 Cic. 

Note  4. — By  the  omission  of  the  first  clause,  the  second  often  stands  alone  with  an., 
in  the  sense  of  or,  implying  a negative  answer  : 

An  hoc  timemus,  or  do  we  fear  this  f Liv. 

Note  5.— Disjunctive  questions  sometimes  have  three  or  more  members  : 2 

Gabinio  anne  Pompeio  an  utrIque,^o  Gabinius.,  or  Pompey.,  or  both  f Cic. 

Note  6. — Disjunctive  questions  inquire  which  alternative  is  true.  These  must  be 
distinguished — 

1)  From  such  single  questions  as  inquire  whether  either  alternatvoe  is  true  : 

Solem  dicam  aut  lunam  deum,  shall  I call  the  sun  or  the  moon  a god  f ® Cic. 

2)  From  two  separate  questions,  introduced  respectively  by  num,  implying  a negative 
answer,  and  by  an,  implying  an  affirmative  answer : 

Num  furis  ? an  ludis  me  ? are  you  mad  f or  do  you  not  rather  mock  me  ? Hor. 

354.  An  Imperative  Sentence  has  the  form  of  a command, 
exhortation,  or  entreaty : 

Justitiam  cole,  cultivate  justice.  Cic. 

355.  An  Exclamatory  Sentence  has  the  form  of  an  exclama- 
don: 

Eeliquit  quos  viros,  what  men  he  has  left ! Cic. 

1 Thus,  in  Vergil,  -ne  occurs  in  both  clauses,  also  -ne  in  the  first  with  seu  in  the 
second.  In  Horace,  -ne  occurs  in  the  second  clause  with  no  particle  in  the  first. 

2 Cicero,  in  his  oration  Pro  Domb,  xxii.,  57,  has  a question  of  this  kind  extended  to 
eight  clauses,  the  first  introduced  by  utrum  and  each  of  the  others  by  an. 

3 Observe  that  in  this  sense  aut,  not  an,  is  used. 


183 


SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES. 


Note  1. — Many  sentences  introduced  by  interrogative  pronouns,  adjectives,  or  ad- 
verbs may  be  so  spoken  as  to  become  exclamatory : 

Quibus  gaudiis  exsultabis,  in  what  joys  will  you  emilt  / Cic. 

Note  2. — Some  declarative  and  imperative  sentences  readily  become  exclamatory. 

Note  3.— Exclamatory  sentences  are  often  elliptical. 

II.  ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCES. 

356.  The  Simple  Sentence  in  its  most  simple  fokm  consists 
of  two  distinct  parts,  expressed  or  implied : 

1.  The  Subject,  or  that  of  which  it  speaks; 

2.  The  Predicate,  or  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject : 

Cluilius  moritur,  Cluilius  dies.  i Liv. 

357.  The  Simple  Sentence  in  its  most  expanded  form  con- 
sists only  of  these  same  parts  with  their  various  modifiers : 

In  his  castris  Cluilius,  Albanus  rex,  moritur,  Cluilius.,  the  Alban  hmg 
dies  in  this  camp.’^  Liv. 

1.  The  subject  and  predicate  of  a sentence  are  called  the  Pidncipal  or 
Essential  elements ; their  modifiers,  the  Subordinate  elements. 

2.  The  elements,  whether  principal  or  subordinate,  may  be  either  simple 
or  complex : 

1)  Simple.,  when  not  modified  by  other  words ; see  358. 

2)  Complex.,  when  thus  modified  ; see  359. 

358.  The  Simple  Subject  of  a sentence  must  be  a noun,  a pro- 
noun, or  some  word  or  words  used  as  a noun  : * 

Bex  decrevit,  the  king  decreed.  Nep.  Ego  scribo,  I write.  Cic.  Ibam, 
1 was  walking.  Hor.  Vicimus,  we  have  conquered.  Cic.  Video  idem  valet, 
the  word  video  has  the  same  meaning.  Quint. 

359.  The  Complex  Subject  consists  of  the  simple  subject  with 
its  modifiers : 

Populus  Bomdnus  decrevit,  the  Eoman  people  decreed.  Cic.  Cluilius  rex 
moritur,  Cluilius  the  kikg  dies.  Liv.  Eex  Rutulorum.,  the  king  of  the 
Eutuli.  Liv.  Liber  de  officiis,  the  book  on  duties.  Cic. 

Note  1. — The  subject  is  thus  modified^ 

1)  By  an  adjective  : Populus  Romanus. 

2)  By  a noun  in  apposition  : Cluilius  rex. 

3)  By  a genitive:  Rex  Rutulorum. 

4)  By  a noun  with  a preposition  : Liber  de  officiis. 

1 Here  Cluilius  is  the  subject,  and  moritur  the  predicate. 

2 Here  Cluilius,  Albanus  rex,  is  the  subject  in  its  enlarged  or  modified  form,  and  in 
fils  castris  moritur  is  the  predicate  in  its  enlarged  or  modified  form. 

3 A pronominal  subject  is  always  contained  or  implied  in  the  personal  ending.  Thus 
m in  Iba-m  is  a pronominal  stem  = ego,  and  is  the  true  original  subject  of  the  verb.  See 
also  84:7;  368,  2,  foot-note. 


ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCES. 


183 


Note  2. — A noun  or  pronoun  used  to  explain  or  identify  another  noun  or  pro- 
uoun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  is  called  an  Appositive ; as  Clvnlius  rex^  ‘ Clui- 
lius the  king.’ 

Note  3. — Any  noun  maybe  modified  like  the  subject. 

Note  4. — Sometimes  adverbs  occur  as  modifiers  of  nouns : 

Non  ignari  sumus  ante  malorum,  we  are  not  ignorant  of  past  misfortunes. 
Verg. 

360.  The  Simple  Predicate  must  be  either  a verb,  or  the 
copula  sum  with  a noun  or  adjective  : 

Miltiades  est  accusatus.,  Miltiades  was  accused.  Nep.  Tu  es  testis.,  you  are  n 
"WITNESS.  Cic.  Fortuna  caeca  est.,  fortune  is  blind.  Cic. 

Note  1. — Like  swm,  several  other  verbs  sometimes  unite  with  a noun  or  an  adjective 
to  form  the  predicate ; see  36S,  2.  A noun  or  an  adjective  thus  used  is  called  a Predi^ 
cate  Noun  or  Predicate  Adjectire. 

Note  ^.—Sum  with  an  adverb  sometimes  forms  the  predicate : 

> Omnia  re^te  sunt,  all  things  are  right.  Cic. 

361.  The  Complex  Predicate  consists  of  the  simple  predicate 
with  its  modifiers : 

Miltiades  Athenas  liberavit,  Miltiades  liberated  Athens.  Nep.  Labori 
student,  they  devote  themselves  to  laboe.  Caes.  Me  rogavit  sententiam.^  he 
ashed  me  my  opinion.  Cic.  Pons  iter  hostibus  dedit,  the  bridge  furnished 
A passage  to  the  enemy.  Liv.  Bella  feliciter  gessit,  he  waged  wars  ruc- 
CESSFULLY.  Cic.  In  his  castris  moritur,  he  dies  (where  ?)  in  this  camp.  Liv. 
Vere  convenere,  they  assembled  (when  ?)  in  the  speing.  Liv. 

1.  The  Predicate,  when  a verb,  is  thus  modified— 

1)  By  an  Accusative  : Athenas  liberavit. 

2)  By  a Dative  : Labmn  student. 

3)  By  two  Accusatives  : Me  rogavit  sententiam. 

4)  By  an  Accusative  and  a Dative  : Iter  hostibus  dedit. 

5)  By  an  Adveeb  : Feliciter  gessit. 

6)  By  an  Adveebial  Phease  : In  his  castris  moritur. 

Note  1.— Still  other  modifiers  occur  with  special  predicates;  see  406,  409,  410, 
422. 

Note  2. — No  one  predicate  admits  all  the  modifiers  here  given.  Thus  only  tran^- 
tive  verbs  admit  an  Accusative  (371);  only  intransitive a Dative  alone  (384, 1.); 
and  only  special  verbs,  two  Accusatives  (374). 

2.  A Peedicate  Noun  is  modified  like  the  subject : 

Haec  virtus  omnium  est  regina  virtutum.,  this  virtue  is  the  queen  op  all 
virtues.  Cic.  See  also  359,  notes  1 and  3. 

3.  A Predicate  Adjective  is  modified — 

1)  By  an  Adverb  : Satis  humilis  est,  he  is  sufficiently  humble.  Liv. 

2)  By  an  Oblique  Case  : Avidi  laudis  fuerunt,  they  were  desirous  of  praise. 
Cic.  Omni  aetati  mors  est  communis,  death  is  common  to  every  age.  Cio 
Digni  sunt  amicitia.,  they  are  worthy  of  friendship.  Cic. 

Note. — Any  adjective  may  be  modified  like  the  predicate  adjective : 

Eques  Romanus  satis  litteratus,  a Roman  knight  sufficiently  literary.  Cic. 


184 


SYNTAX  OF  NOUNS. 


CHAPTEE  II. 


SYNTAX  OF  NOUNS. 


SECTION  I. 

AGREEMENT  OF  NOUNS. 

RULE  I.— Predicate  Nouns.i 

/ 362,  A noiin  predicated  of  another  nonn  denoting  the 
same  person  or  thing  agrees  with  it  in  Case  : ^ 


Brutus  custos^  libertatis  fuit,  Brutus  was  the  guardian  of  liberty.  Liv. 
Servius  rex  est  declaratus,  Serrius  was  declared  king.  Liv.  Orestem  se  esse 
dixit,  he  said  that  he  was  Orestes.  Cic.  See  360,  note  1. 


Note. — This  rule  applies  also  to  nouns  predicated  of  pronouns:  ^ 
Ego  sum  nuntius.^  I am  a messenger.  Liv. 


1.  A Predicate  Noun  with  different  forms  for  different  genders  must 
agree  in  Gender  as  well  as  in  Case  : 

Usus  magister^  est,  experience  is  an  instructor.  Cic.  Historia  est  ma- 
gistra^ (not  magister),  history  is  an  instructress.  Cic. 

2.  Predicate  Nouns  are  most  frequent  with  the  following  verbs : 

1)  With  sum  and  a few  intransitive  verbs — evado ^ exsisto.^  appareo.^  and 
the  like : 


Ilomb  mdgnus  evaserat,  he  had  become  (turned  out)  a great  man.  Cic. 
Exstitit  vindex  libertatis,  he  became  (stood  forth)  the  defender  of  liberty. 
Cic.  See  also  examples  under  the  rule. 

2)  With  Passive  Verbs  of  appointing making.,  naming.,  regarding.,  es- 
teeming., and  the  like : 

Servius  rex  est  declaratus,  Servius  was  declared  king.  Liv.  Mundus  civi- 
tas existimatur,  the  world  is  regarded  as  a state.  Cic. 


Note  1. — In  the  poets,  Predicate  Nouns  are  used  with  great  freedom  after  verbs  of  a 
great  variety  of  significations.  Thus  with  anidio  = appellor : 

Rex  audisti,  you  heme  been  called  king;  i.  e.,  have  heard  yourself  so  called.  Hor. 
Ego  divum  incedo  regina.,  I walk  as  queen  eyfthe  gods.  Yerg. 


1 For  convenience  of  reference,  the  Rules  will  be  presented  in  a body  on  page  824. 

2 For  Predicate  Genitive.,  see  401. 

3 In  these  examples  custos.,  rex.,  and  Orestem  are  all  predicate  nouns,  and  agree  in 
case  respectively  with  Brutus.,  Servius.,  and  se  (536). 

4 As  all  substantive  pronouns  have  the  construction  of  nouns;  see  183. 

® Observe  that  in  fisus  magister  est.,  the  masculine  form,  magister.,  is  used  to  agree 
in  gender  with  usus;  while  in  historia  est  magistra.,  the  feminine  form,  magistra^  is 
used  to  agree  in  gender  with  historia. 


I^OTE  2.— For  Predicate  Accusative,  see  373, 1. 

Note  3. — The  Dative  of  the  object  for  which  (390),  pro  with  the  Ablative,  and  loco 
jr  numero  (or  in  num&ro)  with  the  Genitive,  are  often  kindred  in  force  to  Predicate 
Nouns : Tioati,  pro  Jwste^  loco  hostis,  muniero  (or  in  numero)  hostium,  ‘ for  an  enemy,’ 
t)/*  ‘ as  an  enemy  ’ : 

Fuit  omnibus  horw,  it  was  a benefit  (lit.,  foe  a benefit)  to  all.  Cie.  Sicilia 
nobis  pro  aerario  fuit,  Sicily  was  a treasury  (for  a treasury)  for  us.  Cic.  Quaes- 
tori parentis  loco  fuit,  he  was  a parent  (lit.,  in  the  place  of  a parent)  to  the  questor. 
Cic.  Is  tibi  numero  fuit,  he  was  a parent  to  you.  Cic.  See  also  Predi 

cate  Geruitive,  401. 

3.  Predicate  Nouns  are  used  not  only  with  finite  verbs,  but  also  with 
Infinitives  and  Participles,  and  sometimes  without  verb  or  participle : 
Declaratus  rex  Numa,  Numa  having  been  declared  king.  Liv.  Caninio 
consule,  Caninius  being  consul.  Cic.  See  431,  also  Orestem  under  the  rule. 
Note  1. — For  a Peedicatb  Nominative  after  the  Infinitive  esse,  see  536,  2, 1). 
Note  2.— For  an  Infinitive  or  a Clause  instead  ofa  Predicate  Noun;  see  539;  501. 

RULE  II.— Appositives. 

'^^363.  An  Appositive  agrees  in  Case  with  the  noun  or 
^pronoun  which  it  qualifies : 

Y Cluilius  rex  moritur,  Cluilius  the  king  dies.  Liv.  Urbes  KarthdgO 
/atque  Numantia,  the  cities  Carthage  and  Numantia.  Cic.  Saguntum, 
I foederatam  cavitatem,  expugnavit,  he  took  Saguntum,  an  allied  town.  Liv. 
■"See  359,  note  2. 

1.  An  Appositive  with  different  forms  for  different  genders  must  agree 
in  Gender  as  well  as  in  Case  : 

Cluilius  rex^  Cluilius  the  king.  Liv.  Venus  reglna^  Venus  the  queen. 
Hor. 

2.  An  Appositive  often  agrees  with  the  pronoun  implied  in  the  ending 
of  the  verb : 

HosUs  2 hostem  occidere  volui,  I,  an  enemy,  wished  to  slay  an  enemy.  Liv. 

3.  Appositives  are  kindred  in  force — 

1)  Generally  to  Eelative  clauses : 

Cluilius  rex,  Cluilius  (who  was)  the  king.  Liv. 

2)  Sometimes  to  other  Subordinate  clauses, s as  Temporal,  Concessive,  etc. ; 
Furius  puer  didicit,  Furius  learned  when  he  was  a boy  or  as  a boy.  Cic. 

Junius  aedem  dictator  dedicavit,  Junius  dedicated  the  temple  when  dictator, 
Liv. 

4.  By  Synesis  ^ — a Construction  according  to  Sense  : 

1 See  3653, 1,  foot-note. 

2 ETostis  a^ees  with  ego,  implied  in  volul,  ‘I  wished’ ; see  358,  foot-note. 

3 This  construction  is  sometimes  called  Adverbial  Apposition. 

^ See  Figures  of  Speech,  636,  lY.,  4. 


186 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  CASES. 


1)  Fossessives  admit  a Genitive  in  apposition  with  the  Genitive  of  the  pro- 
noun implied  in  them : 

Tua  ipdus  ^ amicitia,  your  own  friendship.  Cic.  Meum  sblius  peccatum, 
my  fault  alone.  Cic.  Nomen  meum  alsentis.,  my  name  in  my  absence.  Cic. 

2)  Locatives  admit  as  an  Appositive  a Locative  Ablative.  (411,  435),  with 
or  without  a preposition : 

Albae  constiterunt  in  urbe  opportuna^  they  halted  at  Alba.^  a convenient 
CITY.  Cic.  Corinthi,  Achaiae  urbe.,  at  Corinth.,  a city  of  Achaia.  Tac. 

5.  Clauses. — A noun  or  pronoun  may  be  in  apposition  with  a clause, 
or  a clause  in  apposition  with  a noun  or  pronoun : 


Nos,  id^  quod  debet,  patria  delectat,  our  country  delights  us.,  as  it  ought. 
Cic.  Omnes  interfici  jussit,  munimentum^  ad  praesens,  he  ordered  them  all 
to  be  put  to  death.,  a means  of  protection  for  the  present.  Tac.  For  clauses 
in  apposition  with  nouns  or  pronouns,  see  499,  3 ; 501,  III. 


364.  Partitive  Apposition. — The  parts  may  be  in  apposition 
with  the  whole,  or  the  whole  in  apposition  with  the  parts : 

Duo  reges,  ille  bello.  Me  pace,  civitatem  auxerunt,  two  Icings  advanced  the 
state.,  THE  FORMER  by  war.,  the  latter  by  peace.  Liv.  Ptolemaeus  et  Cleopatra, 
reges  ^ Aegypti,  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra,  rulers  of  Egypt.  Liv. 


SECTION  II. 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  CASES. 


365.  Cases,  in  accordance  with  their  general  force,  may  be  ar- 
ranged and  characterized  as  follows : 


I.  Nominative, 
II.  Vocative, 

III.  Accusative, 

IV.  Dative, 

V.  Genitive, 

VI.  Ablative, 


Case  of  the  Subject. 

Case  of  Address. 

Case  of  Direct  Object. 

Case  of  Indirect  Object.  _ 
Case  of  Adjective  Relations. 
Case  of  Adverbial  Relations.® 


1 Ipslus  agrees  with  tul  (of  you)  involved  in  tua ; sollus  and  absemMs.,  with  mel 
involved  in  meum.  The  Genitive  of  ipse,  solus.,  unus.,  and  omnis  is  often  thus  used. 

2 As  a Locative  Ablative  is  a genuine  Locative  in  sense,  there  is  no  special  irregu- 
larity here,  and  in  urbe  opportuna  may  he  explained  as  a separate  modifier  of  the  verb: 
‘ They  halted  at  Alba.,  at  a convenient  cityi'  Thus  explained,  it  is  not  an  appositive  at  all. 

3 Id  quod  debet,  lit.,  that  which  it  owes.  Id  and  munimentum  are  in  apposition 
respectively  with  nos  delectat  and  omnes  interfici.,  and  are  best  explained  as  Accusatives. 
A Nominative  apparently  in  apposition  with  a clause  is  generally  best  explained  either  as 
an  appositive  to  some  Nominative.,  or  as  the  subject  of  a separate  clause. 

* In  the  first  example,  ille  and  Me,  the  parts,  are  in  apposition  with  re.ges.,  the  whole ; 
but  in  the  second  example,  reges.,  the  whole,  is  in  apposition  with  the  parts,  Ptolemaeus 
and  Cleopatra. 

5 This  arrangement  is  adopted  in  the  discussion  of  the  cases,  because,  it  is  thought, 
it  wiii  best  present  the  force  of  the  several  cases  and  their  relation  to  each  other. 


NOMINA  TIVE,^  VO  CA  TIVE. 


187 


366.  The  Nominative^  Genitive^  Dative^  Accusative,  and  Vocative 
have  probably  retained  with  very  slight  modifications  their  original 
force  as  developed  in  the  mother  tongue  from  which  the  Latin  was 
derived.  ^ 

367.  The  Ablative  combines  within  itself  the  separate  oflices 
of  three  cases  which  were  originally  distinct : * 

1.  The  AUative  proper,  denoting  the  relation  from — the  'place 


3.  The  Instrumental,  denoting  the  relation  with,  by — the  instru- 
ment or  means  with  or  by  'which. 


Servius  regnavit,  Servius  reigned.  Liv.  Patent  portae,  the  gates  are 
open.  Cic.  Rex  vicit,  the  king  conquered.  Liv.  Ego  reges  ejeci,  vos 
tyrannos  introducitis,  I have  banished  kings,  you  introduce  tyrants.  Cic. 

1.  The  subject  is  always  a substantive,  a pronoun,  or  some  word  or 
clause  used  substantively  ; ^ see  examples  under  the  rule. 

2.  A pronominal  subject  is  always  expressed  or  implied  in  the  ending 
of  the  verb  : ^ 


1 That  is,  in  the  primitive  Indo-European  tongue,  from  which  have  been  derived, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  not  only  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Sanskrit,  but  also  the  English, 
French,  German,  and  indeed  nearly  all  the  languages  of  modern  Europe.  Upon  the  gen- 
eral subject  of  Cases,  their  original  formation  and  meaning,  see  Bopp,  I.,  pp.  242-519; 
Merguet,  pp.  17-117 ; Penka,  Iliibschmann,  Holzweissig,  Delbriick,  and,  among  the  earlier 
writers,  Hartung,  ‘ Ueber  die  Casus,’  etc.,  and  Rumpel,  ‘ Casuslehre.’ 

2 Bee  Delbriick,  ‘ Ablativ,  Localis,  Instrumentalis.’ 

3 For  the  Subject  of  the  Injinitive,  see  536.  For  the  Agreement  of  the  verb  with 
its  subject,  see  460. 

4 For  clauses  used  substantively,  see  540. 

® See  247.  Thus  moneo  means  I (not  you,  he,  or  ice,  but  I)  instruct.  Indeed, 
every  verb  contains  a pronominal  subject  in  itself,  and  in  general  it  is  necessary  to  add 
a separate  subject  only  when  it  would  otherwise  be  doubtful  to  whom  the  implied  pro- 
noun refers.  Thus  regndcit,  ‘he  reigned,’  is  complete  of  itself,  if  the  context  shows  to 


which. 


SECTION  III. 

NOMINATIVE.— VOCATIVE. 


I.  Nominative. 

RULE  III.— Subject  Nominative. 

^ 368.  The  subject  of  a finite  verb  is  put  in  the  Nomina- 
tive : ’ 


188 


VOCATIVE. 


Discipulos  moneo  i ut  studia  I instruet  pupils  to  lo^e  (that  they 

may  love)  their  studies.  Quint.  Non  scholae,  sed  vitae  disciw^^s,  we  learn 
not  for  the  school.,  hut  for  life.  Sen. 

Note.— A separate  pronominal  subject  may,  however,  be  added  for  the  sake  of  clear- 
ness, emphasis,  or  contrast,  as  in  the  fourth  example  under  the  rule. 

3.  The  verb  is  sometimes  omitted,  when  it  can  be  readily  supplied,  es- 
pecially if  it  is  est  or  sunt : 

Ecce  tuae  litterae,  lo  your  letter  (comes).  Cic.  Tot  sententiae,  there  are 
''sunt)  so  many  opinions.  Ter.  Consul  profectus  (est),  the  consul  set  out.  Liv. 

Note  1. — The  verb  facio  is  often  omitted  in  short  sentences  and  clauses: 

Melius  hi,  quam  vos,  these  have  done  better  than  you.  Cic.  Recte  ille,  he  does 
rightly.  Cic.  Cotta  finem.  Cotta  closed.,  lit.,  made  an  end.  Cic.  So  also  in  Livy 
after  nihil  aliud  {amplius.,  miniis.,  etc.)  quam.,  ‘ nothing  other  (more,  less,  etc.)  than  ’ = 
‘merely’;  nihil  praeterquam.,  ‘nothing  except ’ = ‘ merely  ’ : Nihil  aliud  quam  stete- 
runt, they  merely  stood  (did  nothing  other  than).  Liv. 

Note  2. — Certain  forms  of  expression  often  dispense  with  the  verb : 

Quid.,  what  ? quid  enim.,  what  indeed  ? quid  ergo.,  what  then  ? quid  quod.,  what  of 
the  fact  that  ? quid  plura.,  why  more,  or  why  shall  I say  more  ? ne  plura.,  not  to  say 
more;  ne  multa.,  not  to  say  much;  quid  hoc  ad  me.,  what  is  this  to  me?  nihil  ad  rem^ 
nothing  to  the  subject. 

Note  3. — For  the  Predicate  Nominative.,  see  362. 

Note  4. — For  the  Nominative  as  an  Appositive,  see  363. 

Note  5. — For  the  Nominative  in  Exclamations,  see  381,  note  3. 


II.  Vocative. 

RUliE  IV.— Case  of  Address. 

369.  ^The  name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed  is  put 
in  the  Vocative  : 


Perge,  Laeli.,  proceed.,  Laelius.  Cic.  Quid  est,  Catilina.,  why  is  it,  Cati- 
line ? Cic.  Tuum  est,  Sei'vl,  regnum,  the  kinydom  is  yours,  Servius.  Liv 
0 dil  immortales,  0 immortal  gods.  Cic. 


1.  An  Interjection  may  or  may  not  accompany  the  Vocative. 

2.  In  poetry,  and  sometimes  in  prose,  the  Nominative  in  apposition  with 
the  subject  occurs  where  we  should  expect  the  Vocative : 

Audi  tu,  populus  Albanus,  hear  ye,  Alban  people.  Liv. 

3.  Conversely,  the  Vocative  by  attraction  sometimes  occurs  in  poetry  where 
we  should  expect  the  Nominative  : 

Quibus,  Hector,  ab  oris  exspectate  venls,  from  ivhat  shores,  Hector,  do  you  anx- 
iously AWAITED  come  ? Verg.  Macte  nova  virtute,  puer,  a blessing  on  your  new 
valor,  boy  (lit.,  be  enlarged  by ; supply  esto').  Verg. 


whom  the  pronoun  he  refers;  if  not,  the  noun  must  be  added : Servius  regnavit,  lit.,  lie, 
Servius,  reigned,  or  Servius,  he  reigned.  In  the  fourth  example  under  the  rule,  ego  and 
VOS,  though  already  implied  in  the  form  of  the  verb,  are  expressed  for  emphasis.  In 
impersonal  verbs  the  subject  ‘ it,’  in  English,  is  implied  in  the  personal  ending  t. 

1 See  preceding  foot-note. 


ACCUSATIVE. 


189 


SECTION  IV. 


ACCUSATIVE. 


370.  The  Accusative  is  used  ^ — 

I.  As  the  Direct  Object  of  an  Action; 

II.  In  an  Adverbial  Sense — with  or  without  Prepositions; 

III.  In  Exclamations — with  or  without  Interjections. 

Note  1. — For  the  Predicate  Accusative.,  see  363  and  373, 1. 

Note  2. — For  the  Accusative  in  Apposition.,  see  363. 

Note  3.— For  the  Accusative  with  Prepositions.,  see  433. 

Note  4. — For  the  Accusative  as  the  Subject  of  an  Infinitive.,  see  536. 

XI.  Accusative  as  Direct  Object. 

RUIlcE  V,— Direct  Object, 

^ Direct  Object  of  an  action  is  put  in  the 


Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  world.  Cic.  Libera 
rem  publicam.,  free  the  republic.  Cic.  Popult  Romani  salute^n  defendite^ 
defend  the  safety  of  the  Roman  people.  Cic. 

I.  The  Direct  Object  may  be — 

1.  An  External  Object.,  the  person  or  thing  on  which  the  action  of  the 
verb  is  directly  exerted,  as  salutem  above. 

2.  An  Internal  Object;  i.  e.,  one  already  contained  or  implied  in  the 
action  itself.  This  embraces  two  varieties  : 

1)  In  a strict  sense,  the  Cognate  Accusative.,  an  object  having  a mean- 
ing cognate  or  kindred  to  that  of  the  verb : 

Servitutem  servire, 2 to  serve  in  bondage  (lit.,  to  serve  a servitude).  Ter. 

2)  In  a freer  sense,  the  Accusative  of  Effect,  the  object  produced  by 
the  action : 

Librum  scribere,  to  write  a book.  Cic. 

Note. — Participles  in  dus,  verbal  adjectives  in  bundus,  and  in  Plautus  a 
few  verbal  nouns,  occur  with  the  accusative : 

Vitabundus  castra,  avoiding  the  camp.  Liv.  Quid  tibi  hanc  curatiCst 
(euratio  est)  ^ rem  = cur  hanc  rem  curas,  what  care  have  you  of  this  ? Plant. 

1 The  Accusative  is  probably  the  oldest  of  all  the  oblique  cases  known  to  our  family 
of  languages,  and  was  therefore  originally  the  sole  modifier  of  the  verb,  expressing  in  a 
vague  and  general  Avay  several  relations  now  recognized  as  distinct.  This  theory  ac- 
counts for  the  great  variety  of  constructions  in  which  the  Accusative  is  used  in  Latin. 
See  Curtius,  ‘ Zur  Chronologie,’  pp.  71-74 ; Holzweissig,  pp.  34-38. 

2 The  pupil  will  observe  that  the  idea  of  servitutem,  ‘ servitude,’  ‘ service,’  is  con 
tained  in  the  verb  servire,  ‘ to  serve,’  ‘ to  be  a slave  or  servant.’ 

3 See  37,  note. 


190 


ACCUSATIVE. 


II.  The  Cognate  Accusative  is  generally — (1)  a noun  with  an  adjective 
or  other  modifier,  or  (2)  a neuter  pronoun  or  adjective.  It  is  used  quite 
freely  both  with  transitive  and  with  intransitive  verbs,  and  sometimes  even 
with  verbs  in  the  passive  voice : 

Earn  vUam  vivere,  to  live  that  life.  Cic.  Mirum  somniare  somnium.^  to 
dream  a wonderf  ul  dkeam.  Plant.  Eadem  peccat,  he  makes  the  same  mis- 
takes. ^ Cic.  Hoc  studet  unum.^  he  studies  this  one  thing  (this  one  study). 
Hor.  Perfidum  ridens  Venus,  Venus  smiling  a peefidious  smile.  Hor.  Id 
assentior,  I assent  to  this  (I  give  this  assent).  Cic.  Idem  gloriari,  to  make 
THE  SAME  BOAST.  Cic.  Quid  possunt,  HOW  powerful  are  they.,  or  power 
have  they  f Caes.  Ea  monemur,  we  are  admonished  of  these  things.^  Cic. 
Nihil  moti  sunt,  they  were  not  at  all  moved.  Liv. 

Note.— Here  may  be  mentioned  the  following  kindred  constructions : 

Vox  hominem  sonat,  the  voice  sounds  human.  Yerg.  Saltare  Cyclopa.,  to  dance 
THE  Cyclops.  Hor.  Longam  viam  ire,  to  go  a long  way.  Verg.  Bellum  pugnare,  to 
fight  A BATTLE.  Yerg. 

III.  Special  Verbs. — Many  verbs  of  Feeling  or  Emotion,  of  Taste  and 
Smell,  admit  the  Accusative : 

Honores  desperat,  he  despairs  of  honors.  Cic.  Haec  gemebant,  they  were 
sighing  over  these  things.  Cic.  Detrimenta  ridet,  he  laughs  at  losses.  Hor. 
Olet  unguenta.,  he  has  the  odor  of  perfumes.  Ter.  Oratio  redolet  antiquitatem^ 
the  oration  smacks  of  antiquity.  Cic. 

Note  1.— Such  verbs  are:  desperO.,  to  despair  of;  doled.,  to  grieve  for;  gemd.,  to  sigh 
over;  horred.,  to  shudder  at;  lacrimd.,  to  weep  over;  maered.,  to  mourn  over;  mlror., 
to  wonder  at;  rided.,  to  laugh  at;  sitid.,  to  thirst  for,  etc.;  oled.,  to  have  the  odor  of; 
sapid.,  to  savor  of,  whether  used  literally  or  figuratively. ^ 

Note  2.— Many  verbs  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  are  sometimes  transitive  and  some- 
times intransitive ; see  auged.,  durd^  incipio.,  laxd.,  rud,  suppeditd.,  turhd,  etc.,  in  the 
Dictionary. 

Note  3.— Many  verbs  which  are  usually  rendered  by  transitive  verbs  in  English 
are  intransitive  in  Latin,  and  thus  admit  only  an  indirect  object  or  some  special  con- 
struction ; see  385. 

Note  4. — The  object  of  a transitive  verb  is  often  omitted,  when  it  can  be  easily  sup- 
plied : moved  = moved  me.,  ‘ I move  (myself)  ’ ; vertit  = vertit  se,  ‘ he  turns  (himself)  ’ : 

Castris  non  movit,  he  did  not  move  from  his  camp.  Liv.  Jam  verterat  fortuna^. 
fortnine  had  already  changed.  Liv. 

Note  5. — For  the  Passive  Construction.,  see  464. 

^ IV.  An  Infinitive  or  a Clause  may  be  used  as  Direct  Object : 

Imperare  cupiunt,  they  desire  to  rule.  Just.  Opto  ut  id  audiatis.,  I desin 
THAT  you  MAY  HEAR  THIS.  Cic. 

1 Peccat,  ‘ he  makes  a mistake  ’ ; idem  peccat,  ‘ he  makes  the  same  mistake,’  where 
idem  represents  idem  peccatum. 

Literally,  we  are  admonished  these  things,  i.  e.,  these  admonitions. 

3 Observe  that  with  the  Accusative  desperd  means  not  ‘ to  despair,’  but  ‘ to  despair 
of.’  and  is  accordingly  transitive ; doled,  not  ‘ to  grieve,’  but  ‘ to  grieve  for,’  etc.  With 
some  of  the  verbs  here  given  the  object  is  properly  a Cognate  Accusative. 


ACCUSATIVE, 


191 


372.  Many  Compounds  of  intransitive  verbs  with  prepositions, 
especially  compounds  of  verbs  of  motion  with  circum,^  'per,,  praeter,, 
trans,  and  super,  take  the  Accusative  : 


Murmur  contionem  pervasit,  a murmur  went  through  the  assembly.  Liv. 
Rhenum  transierunt,  they  crossed  (went  across)  the  Rhine.  Caes.  Cireum- 
stant  senatum,,  they  stand  around  the  senate.  Cic.  Hereditatem  obire,  to 
enter  upon  the  inheritance.  Cic.  Eas  nationes  adire,  to  go  to  those  nations. 
Caes.  TJndam  innatare,  to  float  upon  the  wave.  Verg.  Tela  exire, ^ to  avoid 
the  weapons.  V erg.  Gallos  praecedunt,  they  surpass  the  Gauls.  Caes. 


/y  \ VI,— Two  Accusatives— Same  Person. 

\ / 'STS.  Verbs  of  making,  choosing,  calling,  regarding, 
V SHOWING,  and  the  like,  admit  two  Accusatives  of  the  same 
pel  son  or  thing : 


Hamilcarem  imperatorem  fecerunt,  they  made  Hamilcar  commander. 
Nep.  Ancum  populus  the  people  elected  Ancus  KiNG^Liv. 

Summum^  coiT^um  appellarunt  Sendtum,  iUey'^mlied''!^  highest  council 
Senate.  Cic.  Se  praestitit  propugnatorem  libertatis,  he  showed  himself 
THE  CHAMPION  of  liberty.  Cic.  Flaccum  habuit  collegam,  he  had  Flaccus  as 
COLLEAGUE.  Nep.  Socrates  totius  mundl  se  civem  arbitrabatur,  Socrates 
considered  himself  a citizen  of  the  whole  world.  Cic. 


1.  Predicate  Accusative. — One  of  the  two  Accusatives  is  the  Direct  Object, 
and  the  other  an  essential  part  of  the  Predicate.  The  latter  may  be  called  a 
Predicate  Accusative  ; see  S62. 


Note  1. — Habeo,,  ‘to  have,’  admits  two  Accusatives,  hut  when  it  means  ‘to  regard,’ 
it  usually  takes,  instead  of  the  Predicate  Accusative,  the  Dative  of  the  object  for  which 
(384),  the  Ablative  with  in  ox  pro,,  or  the  Genitive  with  loco,,  numero  or  in  numero : 
ludibrio  habere.,  ‘to  regard  as  an  object  of  ridicule’;  pro  hoste  habere,,  in  hostibus 
habere.,  loco  hosUum  habere,,  numero  or  in  numero  hostium  habere.,  ‘to  regard  as  an 
enemy.’  These  constructions  also  occur  with  other  verbs  meaning  to  regard : 

Ea  honbrl  habent,  they  regard  these  things  as  an  honor.  Sail.  Ilium  pro  hoste 
habere,  to  regard  him  as  an  enemy.  Caes.  Jam  pro  facto  habere,  to  regard  it  as 
already  done.  Cic.  In  hostium  nume/rb  habuit,  he  regarded  them  as  enemies  (lit.,  in 
the  number  of,,  etc.).  Caes.  Me  pro  deridiculo  putat,  he  regards  me  as  an  object  of 
ridicule.  Ter. 

Note  2.— The  Predicate  Accusative  is  sometimes  an  adjective: 

Homines  caecos  reddit  avaritia,  avarice  renders  men  blind.  Cic.  Templa  deorum 
sancta  habebat,  he  regarded  the  temples  of  the  gods  as  sacred.  Nep. 

J 2.  In  the  Passive  these  verbs  take  two  Nominatives — 2^,  Subject  and  a Predi- 
\ cate — corresponding  to  the  two  Accusatives  of  the  Active : 

Servius  rex  est  declaratus,  Servius  was  declared  king.  Liv.  See  also  363,  2. 


1 Observe  that  an  intrcmsitive  verb  may  become  transitive  by  being  compounded 
with  a preposition  which  does  not  take  the  Accusative. 


ACCUSATIVE, 


RUIiE  VII.— Two  Accusatives— Person  and  Thing. 

74.  Some  verbs  of  asking,  demanding,  teaching,  and 
CONCEALING,  admit  two  Accusatives — one  of  the  person 
and  the  other  of  the  thing : 


Me  sententiam  rogavit,  he  asked  me  my  opinion.  Cic.  Philosophia  nos 
res  omnes  docuit,  philosophy  has  taught  us  all  things.  Cic.  Auxilia  regem 
orabant,  they  asked  auxiliaries  from  the  king.  Liv.  Pacem  te  poscimus, 
we  demand  peace  of  you.  Verg.  Non  te  celavi  sermonem^  I did  not  conceal 
from  you  the  conversation.  Cic. 

"'^1.  In  the  Passive  the  Person  becomes  the  subject,  and  the  Accusative  ot 
the  thing  is  retained  : 

Me  sententiam  rogavit,  he  asked  me  my  opinion.  Cic.  Ego  sententiam  ro- 
gatus sum,  I was  asked  my  opinion.  Cic.  Artes  edoctus  fuerat,  he  had  been 
taught  THE  ARTS.  Liv. 

2.  Tv7o  Accusatives  are  generally  used  with  celd.,  doceo^  edoceo  ; often  with 
rogb.^  poscb^  reposco;  sometimes  with  dedoceo^  exposco^  flagito.^  brb^  etc.,  con- 
sulb.,  interrogo.^  percontor  ; rarely  with  admoneo.^  imdipostidb. 

Note  1. — ‘to  conceal,’  takes— (1)  in  the  Active  generally  two  Accusatives^  as 
under  the  rule,  but  sometimes  the  Accusative  of  the  person  and  the  Ablative  of  the 
thing  with  de ; (2)  in  the  Passive,  the  Accusative  of  a neuter  pronoun  or  the  Ablative 
with  de : 

Me  de  hoc  librb  celavit,  he  kept  me  ignorant  of  this  book.  Cic.  Id  celarl,  to  be 
kept  ignorant  of  this.  Nep.  Celari  de  consilio^  to  be  kept  ignorant  of  the  plan. 
Cic. 

Note  2. — Doceb  and  edoceb  generally  follow  the  rule,i  but  sometimes  they  take  the 
Accusative  of  the  person  and  the  Ablative  of  the  thing  with  or  without  de^  and  some- 
times the  Accusative  ^ of  the  person  with  the  Infinitive  or  a Subjunctive  Clause : 

De  sua  re  me  docet,  he  informs  me  in  regard  to  his  case.  Cic.  LUte/rls  Graecis 
doctus,  instructed  in  Greek  literature.  Sail.  SOcratem  fidibus^  docuit,  he  taught 
Socrates  (with)  the  lyre.  Cic.  Te  sapere  docet,  he  teaches  you  to  be  wise.  Cic. 

Note  8. — Most  verbs  of  asking  and  demanding  sometimes  take  two  Accusatives, 
but  verbs  of  asking^  questioning^  generally  take  the  Accusative  of  the  person  ^ and 
the  Ablative  of  the  thing  ^ with  de^  and  verbs  of  imploring^  demanding^  generally  the 
Accusative  of  the  thing  ^ and  the  Ablative  of  the  person  ^ with  d or  ab  : 

Te  his  de  rebus  interrogo,  7 ask  you  in  regard  to  these  things.  Cic.  Victoriam 
ab  dils  exposcere,  to  implore  victory  from  the  gods.  Caes.  Id  ab  eb  flagitare,  to  de- 
mand this  FROM  HIM.  Caes, 


1 Other  verbs  of  teaching— Instituo^  informo,  Instruo,  etc. — generally  take 
the  Ablative  of  the  thing  with  or  without  a preposition,  as  in  or  de;  see  Dictionary. 

2 Doceo,  in  the  sense  of  inform,  takes  de  with  the  Ablative. 

8 The  Accusative  may  be  omitted.  With  fidibus  supply  canere. 

4 The  Accusative  or  Ablative  of  the  person  is  often  omitted,  and  a clause  often  take^i 
the  place  of  the  Accusative  or  Ablative  of  the  thing.  For  examples  and  for  special  con- 
structions, see,  in  the  Dictionary,  consulo,  interrogo,  rogo;  sX&o fiagitb,  orb; posco.  e’CS' 
pcscb,  and  reposcb. 


ACCUSATIVE.. 


193 


Note  i^.—Peto  and  postulo  generally  take  the  Acciisati'ce  of  the  things  and  the 
Ablative  of  the  person  with  d or  ab ; quaero,  the  Accusative  of  the  thing  i and  the 
Ablative  of  the  person  with  e or  ea?,  d,  ab,  or  de : 

Pacem  ab  Romanis  petierunt,  the/y  asked  peace  fkom  the  Eomans.  Caes.  Aliquid 
ab  amlcls  postulare,  to  demand  something  from  friends.  Cic.  Quaerit  ex  solo  ea,  etc.,’ 
he  asJcs  of  him  in  private  (from  him  alone)  those  questions,  etc.  Caes. 

375.  ^ Neuter  Pronoun  or  Adjective  as  a Cognate  Accusative  oc- 
curs in  connection  with  a Direct  Object  with  many  verbs  which  do  not 
otherwise  take  two  Accusatives : 

Hoc  te  hortor,  I exhort  you  to  this,  / give  you  this  exhortation.  Cic.  Ea 
monemur,  we  are  admonished  of  these  things.  Cic.  So  with  velle.^  Caes.,  B. 
G.  I.,  34. 

^^/376.  ^ Compounds  of  trdns,  circum,  and  ad  admit  two  Accusa- 
tives, dependent  the  one  upon  the  verb,  the  other  upon  the  preposition  : 

Iherum  copias  trajecit,  he  led  his  forces  across  the  Ebro.  Liv.  Animum 
adverti  columellam,  1 noticed  (turned  my  mind  to)  a small  column.  Cic. 

Note. — In  the  Passive  these 'compounds  and  some  others  admit  an  Accusative  de- 
pending upon  the  preposition : 

Praetervehor  ostia  Pantagiae,  I am  carried  by  the  mouth  of  the  Pantagias.  Yerg. 
Locum  sum  praetervectus,  1 hawe  been  carried  by  the  place.  Cic. 

377.  Ill  Poetry,  rarely  in  prose,  verbs  of  clothing,  unclothing — induo, 
exuo,  cingo,  accingo,  induco,  etc. — are  sometimes  used  reflexively  in  the  Pas- 
sive, like  the  Greek  Middle,  and  thus  admit  an  Accusative : 

Galeam  induitur,  he  puts  on  his  helmet.  V erg.  Inutile  ferrum  cingitur, 
he  girds  on  his  useless  sword.  Verg.  Virgines  longam  indutae  vestem,  maid- 
ens attired  in  long  robes.  Liv. 

Note. — A few  other  verbs  sometimes  admit  a similar  construction  in  the  poets : 

Antiquum  saturata  dolorem,  having  satisfied  her  old  resentment.  Yerg.  Suspensi 
loculos  lacerto,  with  satchels  hung  upon  the  arm  (having  hung,  etc.).  Hor.  Pascuntur 
sitvds,  they  browse  on  the  forests.  Yerg. 

II.  Accusative  in  an  Adverbial  Sense. 

RULE  VIII.— Accusative  of  Specification. 

378.  A verb  or  an  adjective  may  take  an  Accusative 
to  define  its  application  : ^ 

1 The  Ablative  of  the  person  is  often  omitted,  and,  instead  qf  the  Accusative  of  the 
thing,  a clause  is  often  used.  With  postulo  and  quaero  the  Ablative  with  de  occurs. 
For  examples  and  for  other  special  constructions,  see  Dictionary. 

2 See  371,  II. 

3 As  a rare  exception,  moneo  admits  a noun  as  the  Accusative  of  the  thing;  see 
Plant.,  Stich.,  1,  2,  1. 

^ The  Accusative  of  Specification  is  closely  related  to  the  Cognate  Accusative  and  to 
the  Poetic  Accusative  after  Passive  verbs  used  reflexively,  both  of  which  readily  pass 
into  an  adverbial  construction.  Thus  capita  in  capita  veldmur  and  galeam  in  galeam 

14* 


194 


ACCUSATIVE. 


Capita  velamur,  we  have  our  heads  veiled  (are  veiled  as  to  our  heads,  or 
have  veiled  our  heads).  Yerg.  Nube  humeros  amictus,  with  his  shoulders 
enveloped  in  a cloud.  Hor.  Miles  fractus  memhra  labore,  the  soldier  with 
LIMBS  shattered  with  labor  (broken  as  to  his  limbs).  Hor.  Aeneas  6s  deo 
similis,  Aeneas  like  a god  in  appearance.  Yerg. 

1,  In  a strict  sense,  the  Accusative  of  Specification  generally  specifies  the 
part  to  which  the  action  or  quality  particularly  belongs.  In  this  sense,  it  is 
mostly  poetic,  but  occurs  also  in  prose.  See  Ablative  of  Specification.,  434. 

2.  In  a freer  sense,  this  Accusative  includes  the  adverbial  use  of  Dartem. 
yicem^  nihil,  of^and  genu^  in  id  temporis.,  id  aetatis  (at  this  time,  age),  id 
genus omne  genus.,  quocT^nus  (for  ejus  generis.,  etc.),  etc.  ; also  of  secus.,  res., 
and  of  many  neuter  pronouns  and  adjectives — Me.,  illud.,  id.,  quid  (454,  2), 
multum.,  summum.,  cetera.,  rlliqua.,  etc.  In  this  sense,  it  is  common  in  prose : 

Maximam  partem  lacte  vivunt,  they  live  mostly  (as  to  the  largest  part) 
upon  milk.  Caes.  Locus  id  temporis  vacuus  erat,  the  place  was  at  this  time 
vacant.  Cic.  Aliquid  id  genus  ^ scribere,  to  write  something  of  this  kind. 
Cic.  Alias  res  est  improbus,  in  other  things  (as  to  the  rest)  he  is  unprinci- 
pled. Plaut.  Quaerit,  quid  possint,  he  inquires  how  powerful  they  are.  Caes. 
Quid  venisti,  why  have  you  comef  Plaut. 


RULE  lX»--Accusative  of  Time  and  Space* 


379.  Dukation  of  Time  and  Extent  of  Space  are  ex- 
pressed by  the  Accusative : 


Romulus  septem  et  triginta  regnavit  annos,  Romulus  reigned  thirty-seven 
YEARS.  Liv.  Cyrus  quadraginta  annos  natus  regnare  coepit,  Cyrus  began 
to  reign  (when)  forty  years  old  (having  been  born  forty  years).  Cic.  Quin- 
que milia  passuum  ambulare,  to  walk  five  miles.  Cic.  Pedes  octoginta 
distare,  to  be  eighty  feet  distant.  Caes.  Nix  quattuor  pedes  alta,  snow  four 
feet  deep.  Liv.  But — 

A 1.  Duration  of  Time  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Ablative,  or  by  the 
Accusative  with  a preposition : 


Pugnatum  est  horls  quinque,  the  battle  teas  fought  five  hours.  Caes.  Per 
annos  viginti  certatum  est,  the  war  was  waged  for  twenty  years.  Liv. 

2.  Distance  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Ablative : 


Milibus  passuum  sex  a Caesaris  castris  consedit,  he  encamped  at  the  dis- 
tance OF  six  MILES  from  Caesar'' s camp.  Caes. 

Note. — Ab  used  adverbially,  meaning  off.,  sometimes  accompanies  the  Ablative : 

Ab  milibus  passuum  duobus  castra  posuerunt,  they  pitched  their  camp  two  miles 
OFF.  Caes. 


induitur  are  similar  constructions,  while  quid  in  quaerit  quid  possint  may  be  explained 
either  as  a Cognate  Accusative  (371,  I.,  2)  or  as  an  Adverbial  Accusative. 

^ Some  grammarians  treat  genus  in  all  such  cases  as  an  Appositive:  aliquid.,  id 
genus.,  something,  this  kind;  see  Draeger,  I.,  p.  2. 


accusative. 


195 


RULE  X.— Accusative  of  Limit, 
y 380.  The  place  to  which  is  designated  by  the  Accusa- 
Mive : ^ 

\^I.  Generally  with  a preposition — ad  or  in  : 

LegionSs  ad  urhem  adducit,  he  is  leading  the  legions  to  or  toward  the 
CITY.  Cic.  Ad  me  scribunt,  they  are  writing  to  me.  Cic.  In  Asiam  redit, 
he  returns  into  Asia.  Nep.  Confugit  in  dram^  he  fed  to  the  altar.  Nep. 

II.  In  names  of  towns  without  a preposition  : 

Nuntius  Romam  redit,  the  messenger  returns  to  Rome.  Liv.  Plato  Ta- 
rentum venit,  Plato  came  to  Tarentum.  Cic.  Fugit  Tarquinios,,  he  fled  to 
Tarquinii.  Cic.  But — 

Note.— Verbs  meaning  to  collect,,  to  come  together^  — convenio,,  cogo,  convoco,, 
etc. — are  usually  treated  as  verbs  of  motion,,  and  thus  take  the  Accusative,  generally  with 
a preposition ; but  verbs  meaning  to  place — loco,,  colloco,,  pono,,  etc. — are  usually  treated 
as  verbs  of  rest,,  and  thus  take  the  Ablative  (435),  generally  with  a preposition : 

Unum  in  locum  convenire,  to  meet  in  one  place.  Caes.  Copias  in  unum  locum 
cogere,  to  collect  forces  in  one  place.  Caes.  In  alterius  manu  vitam  ponere,  to 
place  one'' 8 life  in  the  hand  of  another.  Cic. 

1.  In  the  NAMES  OF  towns  the  Accusative  with  ad  occurs — (1)  to  denote 
^0,  toward,,  in  the  direction  of,,  into  the  vicinity  of  and  (2)  in  contrast  with 
d or  ah : 

Tres  sunt  viae  ad  Mutinam.,  there  are  three  roads  to  Mutina.  Cic.  Ad 
Zamam  pervenit,  he  came  to  the  vicinity  of  Zama.  Sail.  A Dianio  ad 
Sinopen,,  from  Dianium  to  Sinope.  Cic. 

2.  Like  names  of  towns  are  used — 

1)  The  Accusatives  domum,  domos,  rusj 

‘ Scipio  domum  reductus  est,  Scipio  ivas  conducted  home.  Cic.  Domos  ab- 
ducti, led  TO  THEIR  homes.  Liv.  Rus  evolare,  to  hasten  into  the  country. 
Cic.  Domum  reditio,  a return  home.  Caes. 

2)  Sometimes  the  Accusative  of  names  of  islands  peninsulas : 

Latona  confugit  Delum,  Latona  fled  to  Delos.  Cic.  Pervenit  Cherson^ 

sum,  he  went  to  the  Chersonesus.  Nep. 

3)  Rarely  a few  other  Accusatives,  as  exsequias,  Infitids,  etc. : ^ 

Ille  infitids  ibit,  he  will  deny  (will  proceed  to  a denial).  Ter. 

3.  The  preposition  is  sometimes  omitted  before  names  of  countries, 
and,  in  the  poets,  before  names  of  nations  and  even  before  common  nouns : 

1 Originally  the  place  to  which  was  uniformly  designated  by  the  Accusative  without 
a preposition.  Names  of  towns  have  retained  the  original  construction,  while  most  other 
names  of  places  have  assumed  a preposition. 

See  also  the  Supine  in  um,  540. 


19G 


DATIVE. 


Aegyptum  profugit,  Jie  fled  to  Egypt.  Cie.  Italiam  venit,  he  came  to 
Italy.  Verg.  Ibimus  Afros.^  we  shall  go  to  the  Africans.  Verg.  Lavinia 
venit  lUora.^  he  came  to  the  Lamnian  shores.  Verg. 

4.  A Poetical  Dative  occurs  for  the  Accusative,  with  or  without  a 
preposition : 

It  clamor  caelo  (for  ad  caelum^.,  the  shout  ascends  to  heaven.  Verg.  Faci- 
lis descensus  Averno.^  easy  is  the  descent  to  Hades.  Verg.  See  385,  4. 

III.  Accusative  in  Exclamations. 

RULE  XI. — Accusative  in  Exclamations. 

381.  The  Accusative,  either  with  or  without  an  inter- 
jection, may  be  used  in  exclamations : 

Hey,  me  miserum,  ah  me  unhappy  1 Cic.  Me  miserum,  me  miserable  I ^ 
Cic.  O fallacem  spem^  0 deceptive  hope  ! Cic.  Me  caecum,  blind  (hat 
I am  1 Cic.  Pro  deorum  fidem.,  in  the  name  of  the  gods ! Cic.  Hanc- 
cine  audaciam,  this  audacity  ? ^ Cic.  But — 

Note  1.— An  adjective  or  Genitive  generally  accompanies  this  Accusative,  as  in  the 
examples. 

Note  2. — O,  eheu.,  and  hev,  are  the  interjections  most  frequently  used  with  the  Ac- 
cusative, though  others  occur. 

Note  8. — Other  cases  also  occur  in  exclamations: 

1)  The  Vocative— vihen  an  address  as  well  as  an  exclamation  is  intended : 

Pro  sancte  Juppiter.,  O holy  Jupiter.  Cic.  Infelix  Dido.,  unhappy  Dido.  Verg. 

2)  The  Nominative— the  exclamation  approaches  the  form  of  a statement : 

En  dextra.,  lo  the  right  hand  (there  is,  or  that  is  the  right  hand)!  Verg.  Ecce 
tuae  litte/rae^  lo  your  letter  (comes) ! Cic. 

8)  The  Dati/oe— to  designate  the  person  after  ei,  vae,  and  sometimes  after  ecce,  en., 
hem : ^ 

Ei  mihl.,  woe  to  me.  Verg.  Vae  Uhl,  woe  to  you.  Ter.  Ecce  tih\  lo  to  you 
(lo  here  is  to  you  = observe).  Cic.  En  Uh%  this  for  you  (lo  I do  this  for  you).  Liv. 

SECTION  Y. 

DATIVE. 

382.  The  Dative  is  the  case  of  the  Indirect  Object,  and 
designates  the  Peeson  to  or  for  whom/  or  the  Thing  to 
or  FOR  WHICH,  anything  is  or  is  done/ 

1 See  Milton,  ‘ Paradise  Lost,’  IV.,  78. 

2 The  exclamation  may  of  course  be  interrogative  in  character. 

3 This  is  an  Ethical  Dative;  see  389. 

4 The  Didirect  Object  is  generally  a person,  or  something  personified.  Unlike  the 
Direct  Object,  it  is  never  contained  in  the  action  or  produced  by  it,  but  is  in  most  in- 
stances the  interested  recipient  of  it. 

® Whether  this  was  the  original  meaning  of  the  Dative  is  not  known.  Delbruck 


DATIVE. 


19? 


383.  The  Datiye  is  used — 

I.  With  a large  class  of  Verbs  and  Adjectives  ; 
II.  With  a few  special  Nouns  and  Adverbs. 


RULiE  XII.— Dative  with  Verbs. 


^384.  The  Indirect  Object  of  an  action  is  put  in  the 
Dative.  It  is  used — 

I.  With  Intransitive  and  Passive  Verbs  : 

Tihl  servio,  I am  devoted  to  you.  Plaut.  Serviunt  populo^  they  are  de- 
voted TO  THE  PEOPLE.  Cic.  Impevio  parebant,  they  were  obedient  to  (obeyed) 
AUTHORITY.  Caes.  Tempori  cedit,  he  yields  to  the  time.  Cic.  Labor!  stu- 
dent, they  devote  themselves  to  labor.  Caes.  Mundus  deo  paret,  the  world 
obeys  God.^  Cic.  Caesari  supplicabo,  / Cic.  Nobis 

vita  data  est,  life  has  been  granted  to  us.  Cic.  Numitori  deditur,  he  is 
’ liver ed  to  Numitor.  Liv. 


II.  With  Transitive  Verbs,  in  connection  with  the 
iRECT  Object  : 


Agros  plebi  dedit,  he  gave  lands  to  the  common  people.  Cic.  Tibi  gra- 
tias ago,  I give  thanks  to  you.  Cic.  Natura  hominem  conciliat  homin\ 
Nature  reconciles  man  to  man.  Cic.  Pons  iter  hostibus  dedit,  the  bridge 
gave  a passage  to  the  enemy.  Liv.  Leges  civitatibus  suls  scripserunt,  they 
prepared  laws  for  their  states.  Cic. 

1.  The  Indirect  Object  may  be — 

1)  The  Dative  of  Influence,^  designating  person  to  whom  some- 
thing is  or  is  done  : 

Serviunt  they  are  devoted  to  the  people.  Cic.  Agros  plehl  dedit, 

he  gave  lands  to  the  common  people.  Cic. 

2)  The  Dative  of  Interest,^  designating  the  person  for  whom  something 
is  or  is  done : 

Sibi  Megarenses  vicit,  he  eonquered  the  Megarians  for  himself.  Just. 

3)  The  Dative  of  Purpose  or  End,^  designating  the  object  or  end  for 
which  something  is  or  is  done : 

Receptui  cecinit,  he  gave  the  signal  for  a retreat.  Liv. 

thinks  that  this  case  originally  designated  the  or  object  toward  which  the  action 
tended.  See  Kuhn’s  ‘ Zeitschrift,’  vol.  xviii.,  p.  81, 

1 Is  subject  to  God ; will  make  supplication  to  Caesar, 

Observe  that  the  Dative  of  Influence  is  very  closely  connected  with  the  verb,  and 
is,  in  fact,  essential  to  the  completeness  of  the  sentence ; while  the  Dative  of  Interest  and 
the  Dative  of  Purpose  are  merely  added  to  sentences  which  would  be  complete  without 
them.  Thus  Megarenses  vicit  is  complete  in  itself. 


198 


DATIVE. 


2.  Double  Construction. — A few  verbs  admit — (1)  the  Dative  of  the 
person  and  the  Accusative  of  the  thing,  or  (2)  the  Accusative  of  the  per- 
son  and  the  Ablative  of  the  thing : alicui  rem  donare^  ‘ to  present  a thing 
to  any  one,’  or  aliquem  re  donare^  ‘ to  present  any  one  with  a thing  ’ : ^ 

Praedam  militibus  donat,  he  gives  the  booty  to  the  soldiers.  'Caes.  Athe- 
nienses frumento  donavit,  he  ^presented  the  Athenians  with  grain.  Nep. 

Note. — This  construction  may  also  be  used  of  objects  which  are  in  a measure  per- 
sonified., or  which  involve  persons : 

Murum  urbl  circumdedit,  he  built  a wall  around  the  city.  Nep.  Deus  animum 
circumdedit  corpore.,  God  has  encompassed  the  soul  with  a body.  Cic. 

8.  To  and  for  are  not  always  signs  of  the  Dative.  Thus — 

1)  To,  denoting  mere  motion  or  direction.,  is  generally  expressed  by  the 
Accusative  with  or  without  a preposition  (380): 

VenI  ad  urbem.,  I came  to  the  city.  Cic.  Delum  venimus,  we  came  to 
Delos.  Cic. 

Note  1. — But  the  Dative  occurs  in  the  poets;  see  380,  4,  and  385,  4. 

Note  2.— ‘to  send,’  and  scribo,  ‘to  write,’  take  the  Dative,  or  the  Accusative 
with  ad.,  to  denote  the  person  to  whom : 

Scribit  Labieno.,  he  writes  to  Labienus.  Caes.  Scribes  ad  me,  you  will  write  to 
ME.  Cic. 

2)  For,  in  defence  of  in  behalf  of,  is  expressed  by  the  Ablative  with 
pro  ; for  the  sake  of  for  the  purpose  of  sometimes  by  the  Accusative 
with  in : 

Pro patrid  morl,  to  die  for  one’s  country.  Hor.  Dimicare  pro  Ubertate, 
to  fight  FOR  LIBERTY.  Cic.  Satis  in  usum,  enough  for  use.  Liv. 

4.  The  Dative  sometimes  depends,  not  upon  the  verb  alone,  but  upon 
the  Predicate  as  a whole : 

Tegimenta  galeis’^  milites  facere  jubet,  he  orders  the  soldiers  to  make  cov- 
erings FOR  their  helmets.  Cacs.  Llberls  divites  esse  volumus,  we  wish 
to  be  rich  for  the  sake  of  our  children.  Cic.  Quis  huic  rll  testis  est, 
who  testifies  to  this  (lit.,  is  a loitness  for  this  thing).  Cic. 


Note  1.— The  Dative  is  used  with  verbs  modified  by  satis,  bene,  and  male,  whether 


' written  as  compounds  or  not : 

nils  satis  facere  (also  written  satisfacere),  to  satisfy  them.^  Caes.  Cui  bene  dixit 
unquam,  for  whom  has  he  ever  spoken  a good  word  f Cic.  Optimo  virb  maledicere, 
to  revile  a most  excellent  man.  Cic. 

Note  2.— A Dative  is  sometimes  thus  added  to  the  predicate  when  the  English  idiom 
would  lead  us  to  expect  a Genitive  depending  upon  a noun  : 

• In  conspectum  venerat  hostibus,  ^ he  had  come  in  sight  of  the  enemy  (lit.,  to  the 

1 This  double  construction  occurs  chiefiy  with  aspergo,  circumdo,  circumfundo, 
d^nO,  exuo,  impertio,  induo.  Inspergo,  intercludo. 

2 Galeis  is  best  explained  as  depending  upon  tegimenta  facere,  rather  than  upon 
facere  alone;  llberls,  as  depending  upon  divites  esse  volumus,  and  rll  upon  testis  est. 

3 Literally,  to  do  enough  for  them. 

4 Hostibus  does  not  depend  at  all  upon  conspectum,  but  upon  the  entire  predicate, 
in  cLnspectum  venerat. 


DATIVR 


199 


ejtemy).  Cic.  Caesari  ad  pedes  proicere,  to  cast  at  the  feet  op  Caesar  (lit.,  to  Caesar, 
at  the  feet).  Caes.  Mihi  horror  membra  quatit,  a shudder  shakes  my  limbs.  Verg. 
Urbi  fundamenta  jacere,  to  lay  the  foundations  of  (fov)  the  city.  Liv. 

Note  3. — The  Dative  is  sometimes  very  loosely  connected  with  the  predicate,  merely 
designating  the  person  with  refer e/nce  to  whom  the  statement  is  true  : 

Tu  nil  pater  es,  you  are  a father  to  him.  Tac.  Tridul  iter  expeditis  erat,  it  was 
a journey  of  three  days  for  light-armed  soldiers.  Liv.  Est  urbe  egressis  tumu- 
lus, there  is  a mound  as  you  go  out  of  the  city.^  Verg. 

5.  With  Impersonal  Passive. — Verbs  which  admit  only  an  Indirect 
Object  in  the  Active  are  Impersonal  in  the  Passive,  but  they  may  retain 
the  Dative : 

Hostibus  resistunt,  they  resist  the  enemy.  Caes.  His  sententiis  resisti- 
tur, resistance  is  offered  to  these  opinions.  Caes.  Ne  mihl  noceant,  that  they 
may  not  injure  me.  Cic.  Mihl  nihil  noceri  potest,  no  injury  can  he  done  to 
ME  (lit.,  injury  can  be  done  to  me  not  at  all).  Cic. 

^385.  With  Special  Verbs. — The  Dative  of  the  In- 
direct Object  is  used  with  many  yerbs  which  require  special 
mention.  Thus — 

' ""'I.  With  verbs  signifying  to  benefit  or  injure.^  please  or  displease^ 
command  or  obey.,  serve  or  resist,  and  the  like  : 

Sihl  prosunt,  they  benefit  themselves.  Cic.  Nocere  alteri,  to  injure 
another.  Cic.  Zenonl  placuit,  it  pleased  Zeno.  Cic.  Displicet  Tullo,  it 
displeases  Tullus.  Liv.  Cupiditatibus  imperare,  to  command  desires,  Cic. 
Deo  parere,  to  obey  God.  Cic.  Regl  servire,  to  serve  the  king.  Cic.  Hosti- 
bus resistere,  to  resist  the  enemy.  Caes. 

II.  With  verbs  signifying  to  indulge,  spare,  pardon,  threaten^ 
believe,  persuade,  and  the  like  : 

Sibi  indulgere,  to  indulge  one’s  self.  Cic.  Vitae  parcere,  to  spare  life. 
Nep.  Mihd  Ignoscere,  to  pardon  me.  Cic.  Minitans  patriae,  threatening 
his  country.  Liv.  TrascI  amicis,  to  be  angry  with  friends.  Cic.  Mihi  crede, 
believe  me.  Cic.  Ils  persuadere,  to  persuade  them.  Caes. 

Note  1,— Some  verbs  of  this  class  take  the  Accusative:  delecto.,  juvO.,  laedo.,  offendo., 
etc.: 

Marium  juvit,  he  helped  Marius.  Nep.  Non  me  fama  delectat,  fame  does  not 
delight  me.  Cic. 

Note  2. — Yorfldo  and  confido  with  the  Ablative,  see  425,  1, 1),  note. 

Note  3. — The  force  of  the  Dative  is  often  found  only  by  attending  to  the  strict  mean- 

1 Other  examples  are : A Pylis  eunti  loco  alto  siti  sunt,  they  are  situated  in  an  ele- 
vated place  as  you  come  (lit.,  to  one  coming)  from  Pylae.  Liv.  Descendentibus 
inter  duos  lucos,  as  you  descend  (lit.,  to  those  descending)  beticeen  the  two  groves. 
Liv.  Exscendentibus  ad  templum  maceria  erat,  there  icas  an  enclosure  as  you  as- 
cended to  the  temple.  Liv.  In  universum  aestimanti  plus  penes  peditem  roboris  est, 
to  make  a general  estimate  (lit.,  to  one  making.,  etc.),  there  is  more  strength  in  the 
infantry.  Tac. 


300 


DATIVE. 


ing  of  the  verb : niibo^  ‘to  marry’  (strictly,  to  veil  one's  self,  as  the  bride  for  the  bride- 
groom); medeor,' Ho  cure’  (to  administer  a remedy  to);  satisfacio,  ‘to  satisfy’  (to  do 
enough  for),  etc. 

1.  Some  verbs  admit  either  the  Accusative  or  the  Dative,  but  with  a 
dilference  of  meaning : 

Cavere  aliquem,  to  ward  off  so7ne  one  ; cavere  alicui,  to  care  for  some  one. 

Consulere  aliquem,  to  consult,  etc.  ; alicui,  to  consult  for,  etc. 

Metuere,  timere  aliquem,  to  fear  ; alicui,  to  fear  for. 

Prospicere,  providere  aliquid,  to  foresee  ; alicui,  to  provide  for. 

Temperare,  moderari  aliquid,  to  govern,  direct ; alicui  {of  things),  to  re- 
strain, put  a check  upon  ; temperare  alicui  {of  persons),  to  spare : ^ 

Hunc^  tu  caveto,  he  on  your  gua7^d  against  this  one  (lit.,  ward  him  off). 
Hor.  El  cavere  vol5, 1 wish  to  care  for  him  (i.  e.,  to  protect  him).  Cic.  Per- 
fidiam timemus,  we  fear  perfidy.  Cic.  Sihi  timuerant,  they  had  feared  for 
THEMSELVES.  CaCS. 

Note.— Utterds  ad  aliquem  moans  to  address  a letter  to  some  one  ; but  dare 
Utterds  alicui  generally  means  to  deliver  a letter  to  one  as  a caiirter  or  messenger: 

Litterae  mihl  ad  Catilinam  datae  sunt,  a letter  addressed  to  Catiline  was  deliv- 
ered TO  ME.  Cic. 

2.  A Dative  rendered  from  occurs  with  a few  verbs  of  dAffeidng,  dis- 
senting, repelling,  taking  away,  etc. : 

Differre  cuivis,  to  differ  from  any  one.  Nep.  Sihl  dissentire,  to  dissent 
FROM  HIMSELF.  Cic.  Somnum  mild  adimere,  to  take  sleep  from  me.  Cic. 

Note. — For  the  Poetical  Dative,  see  4,  below;  and  for  the  Ablative  with  verbs  of 
Separation  or  Difference,  see  413. 

3.  A Dative  rendered  with  occurs  with  misceb,  admisceo,  etc.,  and 
sometimes  with  facib: 

Severitatem  miscere  comitati,  to  unite  severity  with  affability.  Liv.  Quid 
huic  hominl  facias,  what  are  you  to  do  with  (to)  this  man  ? Cic.  See  4 below. 

4.  Dative  in  Poetry. — In  the  poets  and  in  late  prose-writers,  the  Dative 
is  used  much  more  freely  than  in  classical  prose.  Thus  it  occurs  with 
more  or  less  frequency  with  the  following  classes  of  verbs : 

1)  With  verbs  denoting  Motion  or  Direction — for  the  Accusative  with  ad 
or  in : 

Mnltos  demittimus  Orcb  (for  ad  or  in  Orcum),  we  send  many  down  to  Orcus. 
Verg.  Caelb  (for  ad  caelum)  palmas  tetendit,  he  extended  his  hands  toward  heaven. 
Verg.  It  clamor  caelo,  the  shout  goes  to  heaven.  Yerg.  See  also  392, 1. 

2)  With  verbs  denoting  Separation  or  Difference  ^ — instead  of  the  Ablative 
with  ah  or  d.e,  or  the  Accusative  with  inter : 

Solstitium  peco7'l  (for  d pecore)  defendite,  keep  off  the  heat  from  the  flock.  Yerg< 
Scurrae  distabit  amicus,  a friend  icill  differ  from  a jester.  Hor.  Serta  capiti  de- 
lapsa, garlands  fallen  from  his  head.  Yerg. 

1 Many  other  verbs  take  different  constructions  with  different  meanings ; see  cedd 
convenio,  cupio,  deficio,  doled,  maneo,  parco,  peto,  solvo,  and  volo  in  the  Dictionary. 

2 Thus  with  arceo,  absum,  differo,  dissentio,  dissideo,  disto,  etc, ; see  Dictionary 


DATIVE. 


301 


3)  With  verbs  denoting  Union^  Comparison^  Contention^  and  the  like' — 
instead  of  the  Ablative  with  cum^  or  the  Accusative  with  inter : 


Miscet  2 viris..,  he  mingles  with  the  men.  Verg.  Concurrere  hosti  (for  cum  hoste\  to 
THE  ENEMY.  Ov.  Solus  \a}q\  ccxliit^he  alouc  contcuds  with  you.  Verg.  Placitone 
pugnabis  amori,  will  you  contend  with  acceptable  love?  Yerg. 

4)  In  still  other  instances,  especially  in  expressions  of  Place : 


- Haeret  lateri  (for  in  latere)  arundO,  the  arrow  sticks  in  her  side.  Verg.  Ardet 
'^pex  capitl.,  the  helmet  gleams  upon  his  head.  Verg. 

['  386.  Dative  with  Compounds. — The  Dative  is  used 
with  many  verbs  compounded  with — 


ad, 

Ob, 


ante, 

post, 


con, 

prae. 


de, 

pro. 


in,  inter, 

sub,  super : 


Adsum  amicis.,  I am  present  with  my  friends.  Cic.  Omnibus  antestare, 
to  sw'pass  ALL.  Cic.  Terris  cohaeret,  it  cleaves  to  the  earth.  Sen.  Hoc 
Caesari  defuit,  this  (was  wanting  to)  Caesar.  Caes.  Voluptati  in- 

haerere, be  connected  with  pleasure,  Cic.  Interfuit  pugnae,  he  partici- 
pated in  the  battle.  Nep.  Consiliis  obstare,  to  oppose  plans.  Nep.  Liber- 
tati opes  postferre,  to  sacrifice  wealth  to  liberty.  Liv.  Populo  praesunt, 
they  rule  the  people.  Cic.  Tibi  prosunt,  they  are  profitable  to  you.  Cic. 
Succumbere  doloribus,  to  yield  to  sorrows.  Cic.  Superfuit  patri,  he  sur- 
vived his  father.  Liv. 

1.  Transitive  Verbs  thus  compounded  admit  both  the  Accusative  and 
the  Dative : 


Sc  opposuit  hostibus.,  he  opposed  himself  to  the  enemy.  Cic.  Capiti  subduxerat 
ensem,  she  had  removed  my  sword  from  my  head.  Verg.  See  also  Libertati  opes 
postferre.,  above. 

2.  Compounds  of  other  Prepositions,  especially  of  «6,  ex.,  and  cinmm^ 
sometimes  admit  the  Dative  ; while  several  of  the  compounds  specifiednitldrer 
the  rule  admit  the  Ablative  with  or  without  a preposition  : ® 

Sihi  libertatem  abjudicat,  he  deprives  himself  (sentences  himself  to  the  loss)  of  lib- 
erty, Cic.  Mihi  timorem  eripe,  free  me  from  fear  (lit.,  snatch  aioay  fear  for  me). 
Cic.  Piigna  assuescere,  to  be  accustomed  to  (trained  in)  battle.  Liv.  Dicta  cum  factis 
componere,  to  compare  words  with  deeds.  Sail. 


3.  Motion  or  Direction. — Compounds  expressing  mere  motion  or  direc- 
tion generally  take  the  Accusative  with  or  without  a preposition : ^ 


' Thus,  with  cbpulo.,  jungo.,  misceo.,  admisceo.,  permisceo,  necto,  socio,  etc. ; ce/rto, 
contendo,  luctor,  pugno,  etc. 

2 Misceo,  as  a transitive  verb,  occurs  with  the  Accusative  and  Dative  even  in  classical 
prose;  see  385,  3;  also  371,  III-,  note  2. 

3 gee  assuesco,  assuefacio,  acquiesco,  coeo,  cohaereo,  colludo,  communico,-  com- 
pono, concordo,  confero,  confligo,  congruo,  conjungo,  consentio,  consto.  Insisto,  In- 
sideo, insum,  and  interdico,  in  the  Dictionary.  See  also  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  406-426 

4 See  accedo,  accido,  addo,  adfero,  adhaeresco,  adhibeo,  adjungo,  adnltor,  ad 
scribo,  adsum.,  illudo,  incido,  incumbo,  incurro,  infero,  offero,  oppbnO,  in  the  Dictionary 


m 


DATIVE. 


Adire  to  approach  the  altars.  Cic.  Ad  conmlea  adire,  to  go  to  the  con- 
suls. Cic.  In  bellum  insistit,  he  devotes  himself  to  the  war.  Caes.  Ad  omne  pericu- 
lum opponitur,  he  is  exposed  to  e/very  peril.  Cic. 

4.  Several  compounds  admit  either  the  Accusative  or  the  Dative  without 
any  special  difference  of  meaning : i 

Munitionibus  adjacent,  they  are  near  the  fortifications.  Tac.  Mare  illud  ad- 
jacent, they  are  near  that  sea.  Nep.  Quibus  timor  incesserat,  whom  fear  had  seized. 
Sail.  Timor  patres  incessit,  fear  seized  the  fathers.  Liv. 

5.  Many  compounds  which  usually  take  the  Accusative  or  the  Ablative 
with  a preposition  in  classical  prose,  admit  a Dative  in  poetry : 

Quid  contendat  hirundo  cycnis  (for  cum  cycnis).,  why  should  the  swallow  eontemd 
WITH  SWANS?  Lucr.  Contendis  Homero.,  you  contend  with  Homer.  Prop.  Animis 
illabi  nostris  (for  in  animos  nostros).,  to  sink  into  our  minds.  Yerg. 

Note.— Instead  of  the  compounds  of  ad.,  ante.,  etc.,  the  poets  sometimes  use  in  the 
same  sense  the  simple  verbs  ^ with  the  Dative: 

Qui  haeserat  (=  adhaeserat)  Evandrb.,  who  had  joined  himself  to  Evander.  Yerg. 
Ponis  (=  apponis)  mihi  porcum,  you  offer  me  (place  before  me)  swine's  flesh.  Mar- 
tial. 


387.  The  Dative  of  the  Possessor  is  used  with  the 


Mihl  est  noverca,  I have  (there  is  to  me)  a stepmother.^  Yerg.  Fonfi 
nomen  Arethusa  est,  the  fountain  has  (there  is  to  the  fountain)  the  name 
Arethusa.  Cic.  But — 

Note  1. — The  Dative  op  the  Name  as  well  as  of  the  possessor  is  common  in  expres- 
sions of  naming : nbmen  est.,  nomen  datur.,  etc. : 

Scipioni  Africano  cognomen  fuit,  Scipio  had  the  surname  Africanus.  Sail.  Here 
Africano.,  instead  of  being  in  apposition  with  cognomen.,  is  put  by  attraction  in  appo- 
sition with  Scipioni. 

Note  2. — The  Genitive  of  the  Name  dependent  upon  nbmen  occurs : 

Nomen  Mercwrl  est  mihl,  I have  the  name  of  Mercury.  Plant. 

Note  3. — By  a Greek  Idiom,  volens,  cupiens,  or  invitus  sometimes  accompanies  the 
Dative  of  the  possessor : 

Quibus  bellum  volentibus  erat,  who  liked  the  war  (lit.,  to  whom  wishing  the  war 
was).  Tac. 


388.  The  Datiye  of  the  Apparent  Agent  is  used 
with  the  Gerundive,  and  with  the  Passive  Periphrastic 
Conjugation : 

1 Such  are  adjaceo,  adulor,  antecedo,  anteeo,  conitor,  despero  (also  with  de),illU‘‘ 
do,  incedo.  Insulto,  invado,  praecurro,  praesto,  praestolor. 

2 Thus  fero  for  adfero,  profero  ; haereo  for  adhaereo ; pbnO  for  appbno,  depcnO, 
impono,  etc. 

3 The  Dative  with  est  usually  expresses  simple  possession  or  ownership,  like  the 
English  have.  Habeo  is  sometimes  used  in  the  same  sense,  but  it  more  commonly  ex- 
presses some  of  the  shades  of  meaning  denoted  by  hold,  keep,  regard,  and  the  like: 
arcem  habere,  ‘ to  hold  the  citadel  ’ ; aliquem  in  obsidione  habere,  ‘ to  hold  or  keep 
one  in  siege  ’ ; pro  hoste  habere,  ‘ to  regard  as  an  enemy.’ 


DATIVE, 


203 


Proelia  conjugibus  loquenda,  battles  for  women  to  talk  about}  Hor. 
Suum  cuique  incommodum  ferendum  est,  every  one  ha^  his  own  trouble  to 
bear,  or  must  bear  his  own  trouble,  Cic. 

Note. — Instead  of  the  Dative  of  the  Apparent  Agent,  the  Ablative  with  d or  ah  is 
sometimes  used : 

Quibus  est  d vobis  ^ consulendum,  for  whom  measures  must  he  taken  by  you.  Cic.^ 

1.  The  Dative  of  the  Apparent  Agent  is  sometimes  used  with  the  com- 
pound tenses  of  passive  verbs  : 

Mihi  consilium  captum  jam  diu  est,  I have  a flan  long  since  formed.^  Cic. 

Note. — Habeo  with  the  Perfect  Participle  has  the  same  force  as  est  mihT  with  the 
Participle : 

Bellum  habuit  indictum,  he  had  a war  (already)  declared.  Cic. 

2.  The  Real  Agent,  with  Passive  verbs,  is  in  classical  prose  denoted  by 
the  Ablative  with  d or  ab  see  415,  I. 

3.  The  Dative  is  used  with  the  tenses  for  incomplete  action,  to  designate 
the  person  who  is  at  once  Agent  and  Indirect  Object,  the  person  by  whom  and 
FOR  (to)  whom  the  action  is  performed  : 

Honesta  bonis  virls  quaeruntur,  honorable  things  are  sought  by  good  men 
(i.  e.,  for  themselves).  Cic. 

4.  In  the  Poets,  the  Dative  is  often  used  for  the  Ablative  with  d or  ab,  to 
designate  simply  the  agent  of  the  action : 

Non  intellegor  ulU,  lam  not  understood  by  any  one.  Ovid.  Regnata  arva 
Saturno,  lands  ruled  by  Saturn.  Verg. 

389.  The  Ethical  Dative,  denoting  the  person  to 
whom  the  thought  is  of  special  interest,  is  often  introduced 
into  the  Latin  sentence : ^ 

At  tibl  venit  ad  me,  but  lo,  he  comes  to  me.  Cic.  Ad  ilia  mihl  intendat 
animum,  let  him,  I pray,  direct  his  attention  to  those  thmgs.  Liv.  Quo  mihl 
abis,  whither  are  you  going,  pray?  Verg.  Quid  mihH  Celsus  agit,  what  is 
MY  Celsus  doing  ? Hor. 

1 The  Dative  with  the  Gerundive,  whether  alone  or  in  the  Periphrastic  Conjugg- 
Uon,  designates  the  person  who  has  the  work  to  do  ; while  with  the  compound  tenses 
of  passive  verbs  it  designates  the  person  who  has  the  work  already  done. 

2 Here  d vbhis  is  necessary,  to  distinguish  the  Agent  from  the  Indirect  Object,  qui- 
hus ; but  the  Ablative  with  d or  ah  is  sometimes  used  when  this  necessity  does  not 
exist. 

3 The  Dative  with  the  Gerundive  is  best  explained  as  the  Dative  of  Possessor  or 
of  Indirect  Object.  Thus,  suum  cuique  incommodum  est  means  ‘everyone  has  his 
trouble  ’ {cuique,  Dative  of  Possessor) ; and  suum  cuique  incommodum  ferendum  est, 
‘ every  one  has  his  trouble  to  bear.’  So  too,  miKl  consilium  est,  ‘ I have  a plan  ’ ; mihl 
consilium  captum  est,  ‘ I have  a plan  {already')  formed.’ 

^ Compare  the  following  from  Shakespeare:  ‘He  plucked  me  ope  his  doublet  and 
offered  them  his  throat  to  cut’  Julius  Caesar,  Act  I.,  Scene  II.  ‘It  ascends  me  into 
the  brain.’  Henry  IV.,  Part  II.,  Act  lY.,  Scene  III.  ‘He  presently  steps  me  a little 
higher.’  Henry  IV.,  Part  I.,  Act  IV.,  Scene  III. 


■204 


DATIVE. 


Note  1. — The  Ethical  Dative  is  always  a personal  pronoun. 

Note  2.— The  Ethical  Dative  occurs  with  volD  and  with  inteejections  : 

Quid  mhls  vultis,  what  do  you  wisk^  intend.,  mean  f Liv.  Avaritia  quid  sibl  vult 
what  does  avarice  mean  f ov  what  object  can  it  hornet  Cic.  Ei  mihii.^  ciAme!  Yerg. 
Vae  tib%  woe  to  you.  Ter.  See  381,  note  3,  3). 

RULiE  XIII.— Two  Datives— To  which  and  For  which. 

^ 390.  Two  Datives — the  object  to  which  and  the  ob= 
JECT  or  END  foe  WHICH — occiir  with  a few  verbs : 

I.  With  Inteansitiye  and  Passive  verbs  : 

Malh  est  hominibus  avaritia,  avarice  is  an  evil  to  men  (lit.,  is  to  men 
FOR  AN  evil).  Cic.  Est  mihl  curae.,  it  is  a care  to  me.  Cic.  Domus 
dedecori  domino  fit,  the  house  becomes  a disgrace  to  its  owner.  Cic. 
Venit  Atticis  auxilio,  he  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians.  Nep. 
Hoc  ill!  tribuebatur  Ignaviae,  this  was  imputed  to  him  as  cowardice  {for 
cowardice).  Cic.  Els  subsidio  missus  est,  he  was  sent  to  them  as  aid.  Nep. 

II.  With  Transitive  verbs  in  connection  with  the  Ac- 
cusative : 

Quinque  cohortes  castris  praesidio  reliquit,  he  left  five  cohorts  for  the 
DEFENCE  OF  THE  CAMP  (lit.,  TO  THE  CAMP  FOR  A DEFENCE).  CaeS.  PericleS 
agros  suos  dono  rel  publicae  dedit,  Pericles  gave  his  lands  to  the  republic 
as  a present  (lit., /or  a present).  Just. 

Note  1. — The  verbs  which  take  two  Datives  are — 

K 1)  Intransitive  verbs  signifying  to  be,  become,  go,  and  the  like : sum,  fib,  etc. 

2)  Transitive  verbs  signifying  to  give,  send,  leave,  impute,  regard,  choose,  and  the 
like : do,  dnnb,  dhcb,  habeb,  mittb,  relinquo,  tribuo,  verto,  etc.  These  take  in  the 
Active  two  Datives  with  an  xlccusative;  but  in  the  Passive  two  Datives  only,  as  the 
direct  object  of  the  Active  becomes  the  subject  of  the  Passive;  see  464. 

Note  2.— One  of  the  Datives  is  often  omitted,  or  its  place  supplied  by  a predicate  noun : 

Ea  sunt  usul,  these  things  are  of  use  (fok  use).  Caes.  Tu  illi  pater  es,  you  are 
A FATHER  TO  HIM.  Tac.  See  363,  2,  note  3. 

Note  3.— With  audiens  two  Datives  sometimes  occur,  dicto  dependent  upon  au- 
dilns,  and  a personal  Dative  dependent  upon  dictb  audims,  and  sometimes  dictb  oboe- 
diens is  used  like  dictb  audiens: 

Dicto  sum  audiens,  I am  listening  to  the  word.  Plant.  Nobis  dicto  audiens  est, 
he  is  obedient  to  us.  Cic.  Magistro  dicto  oboediens,  obedient  to  his  master.  Plant. 


RULE  XIV.— Dative  with  Adjectives. 

391.  With  adjectives  the  object  to  which  the  quality 


is  directed  is  put  in  the  Dative : 


Patriae  solum  omnibus  carum  est,  the  soil  of  their  country  is  dear  to  all. 
Cic.  Id  aptum  est  tempori,  this  is  adapted  to  the  time.  Cic.  Omni  aetdtl 
mors  est  communis,  death  is  common  to  every  age.  Cic.  Canis  similis  lupo 


DATIVE. 


205 


est,  a dog  vs  similar  to  a wolf.  Cic.  Naturae  accommodatum,  adapted  to 

#iure.  Cic.  Graeciae  utile,  useful  to  Greece.  Nep. 

I.  Adjectives  which  take  the  Dative  are  chiefly  those  signifying — 
Agreeable.^  easy.,  friendly.,  like.,  near.,  necessary.,  suitable.,  subject.,  useful.,  to- 
gether wuth  others  of  a similar  or  opposite  meaning, i and  verbals  in  biUs. 

II.  Other  Constructions  sometimes  occur  where  the  learner  would  ex- 
pect the  Dative : 

1.  The  Accusative  with  a Preposition : (1)  in,  erg-a,  adversus,  with  ad- 
jectives €\gu\ifvog  friendly .,  hostile.,  etc.,  and  (2)  ad,  to  denote  the  object  or 
end  for  which.,  with  adjectives  signifying  useful.,  suitable.,  inclined.,  etc. : 
Perindulgens  in  patrem.,  very  kind  to  his  father.  Cic.  Multas  ad  res 
perutilis,  very  useful  for  many  things.  Cic.  Pronus  ad  luctum,  inclined  to 
mourning.  Cic. 

2.  The  Accusative  without  a Preposition  propior.,  proximus  : 

Propior  montem^  nearer  the  mountain.  Sail.  Proximus  mare,  nearest  to 
the  sea.  Caes.'  See  433  and  437. 

3.  The  Ablative  with  or  without  a Preposition  : 

Alienum  a vita  mea,  foreign  to  my  life.  Ter.  Homine  alienissimum, 
most  foreign  to  or  from  man.  Cic.  £i  cum  Eoscio  communis,  common  to 
him  and  Roscius  (with  Koscius).  Cic. 

4.  The  Genitive:  (1)  with  adjectives  used  substantively;  (2)  with  adjec- 
tives meaning  likef  unlike f near.,  belonging  to.,  and  a few  others : ^ 

Amicissimus  hominum.,  the  best  friend  of  the  men  (i.  e.,  the  most  friendly 
to  them).  Cic.  Alexandri  similis,  like  Alexander  (i.  e.,  in  character).  Cic. 
Dispar  sul.,  unlike  itself.  Cic.  Cujus  pares,  like  whom.  Cic.  Populi  Eo- 
mani  est  propria  libertas,  liberty  is  characteristic  of  the  Roman  people.  Cic. 

Note  1. — Idem  occurs  with  the  Dative,  especially  in  the  poets : 

Idem  facit  occidenti.,  he  does  the  same  as  to  kill,  or  as  he  who  kills.  Hor. 

Note  2.— For  the  Genitive  and  Dative  with  an  adjective,  see  399, 1.,  note  1. 

RULE  XV.— Dative  with  Nouns  and  Adverbs. 

392.  The  Dative  is  used  with  a few  special  nouns  and 
adverbs : 

I.  With  a few  nouns  from  verbs  which  take  the  Dative  : 

Justitia  est  obtemperatio'^  legibus.,  justice  is  obedience  to  laws.  Cic. 

1  Such  are  accommodatus.,  aequalis.,  alienus.,  amicus.,  inimicus.,  aptus.,  carus., 
facilis.,  difficilis.,  fidUis.,  Infidelis.,  finitimus.,  gratus.,  ingratus.,  idoneus.,  jucundus 
injucundus,  rnolestus.  necessarius,  notus.  Ignotus,  noxius,  par,  dispar,  perniciosus, 
propinquus,  proprius,  salutaris,  similis,  dissimilis,  diversus,  vicinus,  etc. 

2  The  Genitive  is  used  especially  of  likeness  and  unlikeness  in  character. 

3  As  similis,  dissimilis,  assimilis,  consimilis,  par,  dispar;  adflnis,  finitimus, 
propinquus;  proprius,  sacer,  communis;  alienus,  contrarius.  Insuetus,  etc. 

^ From  obtempero,  which  takes  the  Dative. 


206 


GENITIVE. 


8ihl  responsio,  a reply  to  himself.  Cic.  Opulento  homini  servitus  dura 
est,  serving  (servitude  to)  a rich  man  is  hard.  Plaut.  Facilis  descensus  ^ 
Averno,  easy  is  the  descent  to  Avernus.  Yerg. 

II.  With  a few  adverbs  from  adjectives  which  take  the 
Dative : 

Congruenter  2 naturae  vivere,  to  live  in  accordance  with  nature.  Cic, 
iSihl  convenienter  dicere,  to  speak  consistently  with  himself.  Cic.  Proxi- 
me hostium  castris,  next  to  the  camp  of  the  enemy.  Caes. 

Note  1. — In  rare  instances  the  Dative  occurs  with  a few  nouns  and  adverbs  not  in. 
eluded  in  the  rule : 

Tribunicia  potestas,  munimentum  Ubertati.,  tribunician  power.,  a defence  for  lib. 
ERTY.  Liv.  Huic  iina  = una  cum  hoc,  with  this  one.  Verg. 

Note  2.—  For  the  Dative  of  Gerundives  with  oflQcial  names,  see  544,  note  3. 

Note  8. — For  the  Dative  with  interjections.,  see  381,  note  8;  389,  note  2. 

SECTION  VI. 

GENITIVE. 

398.  The  Genitive  in  its  ordinary  use  corresponds  to  the 
English  possessive,  or  the  objective  with  of,  and  expresses 
various  adjective  relations.® 

Note.— But  the  Genitive,  especially  when  objective  (396,  III.),  is  sometimes  best 
rendered  to,  for,  from,  in,  on  account  of,  etc. : 

Beneficii  gratia,  gratitude  for  a favor.  Cic.  Laborum  fuga,  escape  from  labors. 
Cic.  anger  on  account  of  the  rescue  of  the  maiden.  Verg. 

394.  The  Genitive  is  used  chiefly  to  qualify  or  limit  nouns 
and  adjectives/  though  it  also  occurs  with  verbs  and  adverbs. 

RULE  XVI.— Genitive  with  Nouns. 

I 395.  Any  noun,  not  an  appositive,  qualifying  the 
meaning  of  another  noun,  is  put  in  the  Genitive : 

Catonis  orationes,  Cato’s  orations.  Cic.  Castra  hostium,  the  camp  of 
the  enemy.  Liv.  Mors  Hamilcaris,  the  death  of  Hamilcar.  Liv.  Deum 
metus,  the  fear  of  the  gods.  Liv.  Vir  consilii  magni,  a man  of  great  pru- 
dence. Caes.  a part  of  the  people.  Cic. 

1 From  descendo,  which  admits  the  Dative  in  poetry ; see  385,  4, 1). 

2 From  congruens,  which  takes  the  Dative. 

3 The  Genitive  has  nearly  the  force  of  an  adjective,  and  means  simply  of  ox  belonging 
to.  Thus,re^ts,  equivalent  to  regius,  means  of  ox  belonging  to  a king.  On  the  origin 
and  use  of  the  Genitive,  see  Hiibschmann,  p 106;  Merguet,  p.  69;  Holzweissig,  pp.  26 
and  73;  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  447-498;  Koby,  II.,  pp.  116-137. 

4 Doubtless  originally  it  limited  only  nouns  and  adjectives. 


/ABL  HT^iRICHS 

GENITIVE. 


30? 


No'ie  1.— For  the  Apjpositive^  see  363. 

Note  2.— An  Adjective  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Genitive  r 

Bellica  gloria  = belli  gloria,  the  glory  of  war.  Cic.  Conjunx  Hectorea  = conj  nnx 
Hectoris,  the  wife  of  Hector.  Verg.  Pugna  Marathonia,  the  lattle  of  Marathon.  Cic. 
Diana  Ephesia,  Diana  of  Ephesus.  Cic.  See  393,  foot-note. 

Note  3.— For  the  Predicate  Genitire,  see  401. 

Note  4. —For  special  uses  of  the  Dative,  see  384,  4,  note  2. 


396.  The  qualifying  Genitive  may  be — 

I.  A Possessive  Genitive,^  designating  the  author  and  the  possessor  : 


Xenophontis  lihrl,  the  booh  of  Xenophon.  Cic.  Fanum  Neptuni,  the 
temple  of  Neptune.  Nep. 

v]  II.  A Subjective  Genitive,  designating  the  subject  or  agent  of  the  ac- 
tion, feeling,  etc. : 

Serpentis  morsus,  the  bite  of  the  serpent.  Cic.  Pavor  Numidarum,  the  fear 
of  the  Numidians.  Liv. 

Note. — The  Possessive  Pronoun  is  regularly  used  for  the  SubjecUne  GeniUne  of 
Personal  pronouns : 

Mea  domus,  my  house.  Cic.  Fama  tua,  your  fame.  Cic. 

\j  III.  An  Objective  Genitive,  designating  the  object  toward  which  ih(f 
action  or  feeling  is  directed : 

Amor  gloriae,  the  love  of  glory.  Cic.  Memoria  malorum,  the  recollection 
of  sufferings.  Cic.  the  fear  of  the  gods.  Liv. 

Note  1. — For  the  Objective  Genitive,  the  Accusative  with  in,  erga,  or  adver- 
sus is  sometimes  used : 

Odium  in  hominum  genus,  hatred  of  or  toward  the  race  of  mem..  Cic.  Erga  vos 
amor,  love  toward  you.  Cic. 

Note  2. — The  Possessive  occurs,  though  rarely,  for  the  Objective  Genitive  of  Per- 
sonal pronouns : 

, Tua  fiducia,  reliance  on  you.  Cic. 

I / lY.  A Partitive  Genitive,  designating  the  whole  of  which  a part  is 
^ taken : 


Quis  vestrum,  which  of  you?  Cic.  Vitae  pars,  a part  of  life.  Cic. 
Omnium  sapientissimus,  the  wisest  of  all  men.  Cic. 

V.  A Descriptive  Genitive,  also  called  a Genitive  of  Characteristic, 
designating  character  or  quality.,  including  value.,  price,  size,  weight,  age,  etc. 

Vir  maximi  consilii,  a man  of  very  great  prudence.  Nep.  Mitis  ingenii 
juvenis,  a youth  of  mild  disposition.  Liv.  Yestis  magni  pretii,  a garment  of 
great  value.  Cic.  Exsilium  decem  annorum,  an  exile  of  ten  years.  Nep. 
Corona  parvi  ponderis,  a crown  of  small  weight.  Liv.  See  404. 


1 It  will  be  found  convenient  thus  to  characterize  the  different  uses  of  the  Genitive 
by  the  relation  actually  existing  between  the  words  united  by  it,  though  that  special  re- 
lation is  not  expressed  by  the  case  itself,  but  merely  suggested  by  the  meaning  of  the 
words  thus  united. 


308 


GENITIVE. 


Note  1 . — The  Descriptive  Genitive  must  be  accompanied  by  an  adjective  or  some 
other  modifier,  unless  it  be  a compound  containing  a modifier;  as  hiijusmodl  = Mjm 
modi;  trldui^  from  tres  dies;  l)idu%  from  duo  {pis)  dies. 

Note  2.  — For  id  genus  = ejus  generis.,  omne  genus  — omnis  generis.,  see  378,  2. 

Note  3.— For  the  Descriptive  AhlaVive.,  see  419,  II.,  with  note. 

V VI.  An  Appositional  Genitiye,  having  the  general  force  of  an  Apposi^ 

live  (363) : 

Virtus  continentiae,  the  virtue  of  self-control.  Cic.  Oppidum  Antiochiae, 

• ohe  city  of  Antioch.  Cic.  Tellus  Ausoniae,  the  land  of  Ausonia.  Verg. 

397.  The  Partitive  Genitive  designates  the  whole  of  which 
a part  is  taken.  It  is  used — 

I.  With  pars.,  nemh.,  nihil ; with  nouns  of  quantity,  number,  weight, 
etc.,  as  modius.,  legio.,  talentum  ; and  with  any  nouns  used  partitively : 

Eguorum  pars,  a part  of  the  horses.  Liv.  Nihil  novl  (441,  2),  nothing 
NEW  (OF  new).  Cic.  Nihil  rGiqui  (441,  2),  nothing  left  (lit.,  of  the  rest). 
Sail.  Medimnum  tritici,  a bushel  of  wheat.  Cic.  Pecuniae  talentum,  a talent 

\ of  money.  Nep.  Q,\xbr\xm  of  whom  Gaius.  Cic. 

2.  With  Numerals  used  substantively : ^ 

Quorum  quattuor,  four  of  whom.  Liv.  Equitum  centum,  a hundred  of 
the  cavalry.  Curt.  Sapientum  octavus,  the  eighth  of  the  wise  men.  Hor. 
Unus  pontium,  one  of  the  bridges.  Caes. 

Note.— In  good  prose  the  Genitive  is  not  used  when  the  two  words  refer  to  the  same 
number  of  objects,  even  though  of  be  used  in  English  ; 

QuI  (not  quorum)  duo  supersunt,  of  whom  two  survive.  Cic.  Omnes  homines,  all 
men.  Cic.  But  see  p.  209,  note  4,  with  foot-note. 

\ 3.  With  Pronouns  and  Adjectives  used  substantively,  especially  with 
comparatives,  superlatives,  and  neuters  : ^ 


Quis  vestrum,  which  of  you  f Cic.  Num  quidnam  novi,  is  there  anything 
new  (of  new)  ? Cic.  Consulum  alter,  one  of  the  consuls.  Liv.  Prior  horum, 
the  former  of  these.  Nep.  Gallorum  fortissimi,  the  bravest  of  the  Gauls.  Caes. 
Id  temporis,  that  {of)  time.  Cic.  Multum  operae,  much  {of)  service.  Cic. 

Note  1. — Pronouns  and  adjectives,  except  neuters,  when  used  with  the  Partitive 
Genitive,  take  the  gender  of  the  Genitive,  unless  they  agree  directly  with  some  other 
word ; see  consulum  alter.,  above. 

Note  ^.—  Uterque.,  ‘each,’  ‘both,’  is  generally  used  as  an  adjective;  but  when  it  is 
combined  in  the  singular  number  with  another  pronoun,  it  usually  takes  that  pronoun  in 
the  Genitive : 

Uterque  exercitus,  each  army.  Caes.  Quae  utraque,  both  of  which.  Sail.  Utrique 
nostrum  3 grMum,  acceptable  to  each  of  us.  Cic. 


1 Numerals  used  adjectively  agree  with  their  nouns:  mllle  homines.,  ‘a  thousand 
men’;  mllle  hominum.,  ‘a  thousand  of  men’*,  multi  homines.,  ‘many  men’;  multi 
hominum.,  ‘ many  of  the  men.’ 

2 As  A^c,  id.,  illud.,  quid;  multum.,  plus.,  plurimum.,  minus.,  minimum.,  tantum^ 
quantum,  etc. 

3 A Partitive  Genitive,  because  a pronoun. 


GENITIVE. 


209 


^ Note  3.— For  the  Partitive  Genitive^  the  Accusative  with  inter  or  ante,  or  the 
U.blative  with  ex,  de,  or  in,  is  sometimes  used : 

Inter  reges  opulentissimus,  the  most  wealthy  o/ (among)  kings.  Sen.  Unus  ex  viris, 
one  of  the  heroes.  Cic.  Unus  i de  legatis,  one  of  the  lieutenants.  Cic. 

Note  4. — Poets  and  Ikte  prose  writers  make  a very  free  use  of  the  Partitive  Genitive 
after  adjectives : 

Sancta  dearum,  holy  goddess.  Enn.  Sancte  deorum,  0 holy  god.  Verg.  FSstos 
dierum,  festal  days.  Hor.  Leves  cohortium,  the  light-armed  cohorts.  Tac.  Inclutus 
philosophorum,  the  renowned  philosopher.  Just.  Keliquum  diel,  the  rest  of  the  day. 
Liv.  MviXtum  much  of  the  day.  Liv.  the  rest  of  the  night.  Tac. 

Strata  viarum  = stratae  viae,  pared  streets.  Verg.  Yana  rerum  = vanae  res,  rain 
things.  Hor.  Hominum  cuncti,  all  of  the  men.^  Ovid.  0 uncta  terrarum,  all  lands. 
Hor.  See  also  438,  5. 

Note  5. — The  Neuter  of  pronouns  and  adjectives  with  the  Partitive  Genitive  is  some- 
times used  of  persons : 

Quid  hoc  est  hominis.,  what  kind  of  a man  is  this?  Plaut.  Quidquid  erat  pa- 
trum reos  diceres,  you  would  hare  said  that  all  the  senators  (lit.,  whatever  there 
was  OF  fathers)  were  accused.  Liv.  Quid  hue  tantum  hominum  incedunt,  why  are 
so  many  men  (so  much  of  men)  coming  hither  1 Plaut. 


4.  The  Partitive  Genitive  also  occurs  with  a few  adverbs,  especially  when 
they  are  used  substantively : ^ 

Armorum  d,^i2X\m.^abundance  of  arms.  Liv.  Lucis  nimis,  too  much  {of')  light. 
Ovid.  Sapientiae  parum,  little  (of)  wisdom.  Sail.  Partim  copiarum,  a portion 
of  the  forces.  Liv.  Quod  ejus  facere  potest,  as  far  as  (what  of  it)  he  is  able  to 
do.  Cic.  Nusquam  gentium,  nowhere  in  the  world.  Cic.  Hue  arrogantiae, 
to  this  degree  of  insolence.  Tac.  Maxime  omnium,  most  of  all.  Cic. 


398.  Genitive  in  Special  Constructions. — Note  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  The  Goyerning  Word  is  often  omitted.  Thus — 

Aedes.,  templum.,  discipulus.,  hOmO.,  juvenis.,  puer.,  etc. ; causa.,  gratia.,  and 
indeed  any  word  when  it  can  be  readily  supplied : 

Ad  Jovis  (sc.  aedem),  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter.  Liv.  Hannibal  anno- 
rum novem  (sc.  puer),  Hannibal.,  a boy  nine  years  of  age.  Liv.  Aberant 
bidui  (sc.  viam  or  spatium),  they  ivere  two  days’  journey  distant.  Cic.  Con- 
ferre vitam  Treboni  cum  Dolabellae  (sc.  vita),  to  compare  the  life  of  Trebonius 
with  that  of  Dolabella.  Cic. 

Note  1. — The  governing  word  is  generally  omitted  when  it  has  been  expressed  before 
another  Genitive,  as  in  the  last  example;  and  then  the  second  Genitive  is  sometimes 
attracted  into  the  case  of  the  governing  word : 

1 Vnus  is  generally  followed  by  the  Ablative  with  ex  or  de.,  but  sometimes  by  the 
Genitive. 

2 Observe  that  in  this  case  the  partiUre  idea  has  entirely  disappeared,  and  that  the 
construction  is  partitire  in  form.,  but  not  in  sense. 

3 As  with  adverbs  of  Quantity — abunde,  adfatim, nimis,  parum,  partim,  quoad, 
satis,  etc. ; of  Place — hlc,  hue,  nusquam,  ubi,  etc. ; of  Extent,  Degree,  etc. — eo,  hue, 
quo;  and  with  superloMres.  As  adverbs  are  substantives  or  adjectives  in  origin,  it  is 
not  strange  that  they  are  thus  used  with  the  Genitive. 

15 


210 


GENITIVE. 


Natura  hominis  beluis  (for  Mluarum  naturae)  antecedit,  the  nature  of  man  aur 
passes  (that  of)  the  hrutes.  Cic. 

Note  2. — In  many  cases  where  we  supply  son^  daughter^  husband^  wife.,  the  ellipsis 
is  only  apparent,  the  Genitive  depending  directly  on  the  proper  noun  expressed : 

Hasdrubal  Gisconis,  Gisco''s  Hasdrubal.,  or  Hasdrubal  the  son  of  Gisco.  Liv.  Hec- 
^ toris  Andromache,  Hector"' s Andromache.,  or  Andromache  the  wife  of  Hector.  Yerg. 

2.  Two  Genitiyes  are  sometimes  used  with  the  same  noun.  One  is 
generally  subjective.^  the  other  either  objective  or  descriptive : 

Memmi  odium  potentiae,  Memmius*s  hatred  of  power.  Sail.  Helvetiorum 
injuriae  populi  Eomarii,  the  wrongs  done  by  the  Helvetii  to  the  Boman  people. 
Caes.  Superiorum  dierum  Sabini  cunctatio,  the  delay  of  Sabinus  during  (lit., 
of)  the  preceding  days,  Caes. 

8.  A Genitive  sometimes  accompanies  a Possessive,  especially  the 
Genitive  of  ipse.^  solus.,  unus.,  or  omnis: 

Tua  ipsius  amicitia, ^ your  own  friendship.  Cic.  , Meum  solius  peccatum, 
my  fault  alone.  Cic.  Nomen  meum  absentis,  my  name  in  my  absence.  Cic. 


4.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  Instar.,  ‘ likeness,’  ‘ image,’  in  the  sense  of 
as  large  as.,  of  the  size  of.,  equal  to : 

Instar  montis  equus,  a horse  of  the  size  of  a mountain.  Verg. 

6.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  pridie.,  postridie.,  ergo,  and  tenus : ^ 


Pridie  ejus  diei,  on  the  day  before  that  day.  Caes.  Postridie  ejus  diei,  on 
the  day  after  that  day.  Caes.  Virtutis  ergo,  on  account  of  virtue.  Cic.  Lum- 
borum tenus,  as  far  as  the  loins.  Cic.  For  tenus  with  the  Ablative,  see  434. 


RULE  XVII.— Genitive  with  Adjectives. 

399.  Many  a(3jectives  take  a Genitive  to  complete 
their  meaning : 

Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise.  Cic.  Oiil  cupidus,  desirous  of  leis- 
ure. Liv.  Conscius  conjurationis,  cognizant  of  the  conspiracy.  Sail. 
Amans  sul  virtus,  virtue  fond  of  itself.  Cic.  Efficiens  voluptatis,  produc- 
tive of  pleasure.  Cic.  Gloriae  memor,  mindful  of  glory.  Liv. 


Note. — This  Genitive  corresponds  to  the  Objective  Genitive  with  nouns : 

Amor  gloriae,  the  love  of  glory.  Cic.  Appetens  gloriae,  desirous  of  (eager  for) 
glory.  Cic. 

I.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  adjectives  denoting — 

1.  Desire  or  Aversion  : ^ * 


1 Ipslus  may  be  explained  as  agreeing  with  tul  (of  you),  involved  in  tua.,  and  solius 
and  absentis  as  agreeing  with  mel  (of  me),  involved  in  meum. 

2 These  words  are  strictly  nouns.,  and,  as  such,  govern  the  Genitive.  Pridie  and 
postridie  are  Locatives;  ergo  is  an  Ablative,  and  tenus,  an  Accusative;  see  304;  307, 
note  1. 

3 Such  are — (1)  avidus,  cupidus,  studiosus.;  fastidiosus,  etc. ; (2)  gnarus.  Ignarus, 
consultus,  conscius.  Inscius,  nescius,  certus,  incertus;  providus,  prudens,  imprw 


GWITIVE, 


2U 


Contentionis  cupidus,  desirous  of  contention.  Cic.  Sapientiae  studiosus,  stu- 
dious of  (student  of)  wisdom.  Cic.  Terrae  fastidiosus,  weary  of  the  land.  Hor. 

/2.  Knowledge,  Skill,  Recollection,  with  their  contraries : ^ 

Eci  gnarus,  acquainted  with  the  thing.  Cic.  Prudens  rei  militaris,  shilled 
in  military  science.  Nep.  Peritus  belli,  skilled  in  war.  Nep.  Insuetus 
laboris,  unaccustomed  to  labor.  Caes.  Gloriae  memor,  mindful  of  glory. 
Liv.  forgetful  of  kindness.  Cic. 

3.  Participation,  Guilt,  Fulness,  Mastery,  with  their  contraries : ^ 
Adfinis  culpae,  sharing  the  fault.  Cic.  Rationis  particeps,  endowed  with 
(sharing)  reason.  Cic.  Rationis  expers,  destitute  of  reason.  Cic.  Manifestus 
rerum  capitalium,  convicted  of  capital  crimes.  Sail.  Vita  metus  plena,  a life 
full  of  fear.  Cic.  Mei  potens  sum,  / aw  master  of  myself . Liv.  Virtutis 
compos,  capable  of  virtue.  Cic. 


Note  1. — The  Genitive  and  Dative  sometimes  occur  with  the  same  adjective : 

Mens  sib!  conscia  recti,  a mind  conscious  to  itself  of  rectitude.  Yerg.  Sib!  conscii 
culpae,  conscious  to  themselves  of  fault.  Cic. 

Note  2.— For  the  Genitive  with  adjectives  used  substantively^  and  with  adjectives 
meaning  Uke.,  unlike.^  near.,  belonging  to.,  etc.,  see  391,  II.,  4. 

Note  3.— For  the  Genitive  with  dlgnus  and  indignus.,  see  421,  note  3. 

II.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  Verbals  in  and  with  Present  Par- 
"ticiples  used  adjectively : 

Virtutum  ferax,  productive  of  virtues.  Liv.  Tenax  propositi,  tenacious 
(steadfast)  of  purpose.  Hor.  Amans  patriae,  fond  of  his  country. Cic. 
Fugiens  laboris,  shunning  labor.  Caes. 

III.  In  the  poets  and  in  late  prose  writers^  especially  in  Tacitus,  the  Gen- 
itive is  used — 


1.  With  adjectives  of  almost  every  variety  of  signification,  simply  to 
define  their  application : ® 

Aevi  maturus,  mature  in  age.  Verg.  Ingens  virium,  mighty  in  strength. 
Sail.  Seri  studiorum,  late  in  studies.  Hor.  Integer  aevi,  unimpaired  in  age 
(i.  e. , in  the  bloom  of  youth).  V erg.  Aeger  animi,^  afflicted  in  spirit.  Liv.  Anx- 
ius animi,4  anxious  in  mind.  Sail.  Fidens  animi,  confident  in  spirit.  Verg. 


2.  With  a few  adjectives,  to  denote  cause: 

Laetus  laborum,  pleased  ivith  the  labors.  V 6rg.  Notus  animi  paterni,  dis- 
tinguished for  paternal  affection.  Hor. 


dens;  peritus.,  imperitus.,  rudis..  Insuetus;  memor.,  immemor.,  adfinis.,  con- 

sors., exsors.,  expers.,  particeps.,  manifestus.,  noxius;  plenus.,  fertilis.^  refe/rtus.,  egenus.^ 
inops.,  vacuus;  potens.,  impotens.,  compos.,  etc. 

1 See  foot-note  3,  page  210. 

2 Amans  patriae.,  ‘ fond  of  his  country,’  represents  the  affection  as  permanent  and 
constant;  whereas  the  participial  construction,  amdns  patriam.,  ‘loving  his  country,’ 
designates  a particular  instance  or  act. 

3 Like  the  Ablative  of  Specification;  see  424.  For  vbtl  reus.,  ‘bound  to  fulfil  a 
vow,’  see  410,  III.,  note  2. 

^ Probably  a Locative  in  origin,  as  animls  is  used  in  similar  instances  in  the  plural. 


212 


GENITIVE. 


400.  Adjectives  which  usually  take  the  Genitive,  sometimes 
admit  other  constructions : 

1.  The  Dative  : 

Manus  subitis  avidae,  Tiands  ready  for  sudden  events.  Tac.  Insuetus  mori- 
bus Komanis,  unaccustomed  to  Roman  momners.  Liv.  Facinari  mens  conscia, 
a mind  conscious  of  crime.  Cic.  See  391. 

2.  The  Accusative  with  a preposition  : 

Insuetus  ad  pugnam,  unaccustomed  to  lattle.  Liv.  Fertilis  ad  omnia,  pro- 
ductive for  all  things.  Plin.  Avidus  in  novas  res,  eager  for  new  things.  Liv. 

3.  The  Ablative  with  or  without  a preposition  : 

Prudens  in  jure  civili,  learned  in  civil  law.  Cic.  His  de  rebus  conseius, 
aware  of  these  thhigs.  Cic.  Vacuus  de  defensoribus^  destitute  of  defenders. 
Caes.  Curis  free  from  cares.  Cic.  Eefertus  bonis,  replete  with  hless- 

ings.  Cic.  See  414,  111. 

RULiE  XVIII.— Predicate  Genitive. 

401.  A noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  a 
different  person  or  thing  is  put  in  the  Grenitive : 

Omnia  hostium  erant,  all  things  belonged  to  the  enemy.^  Liv.  Senatus 
Hannibalis  erat,  the  senate  was  Hannibal’s  (i.  e.,  in  his  interest).  Liv. 
Judicis  est  verum  sequi,  to  follow  the  truth  is  the  duty  of  a judge.^  Cic. 
Parvi  pretii  est,  it  is  of  small  value.  Cic.  Tyrus  mare  suae  dicionis  ^ fecit, 
Tyre  brought  the  sea  under  (lit.,  made  the  sea  of)  her  sway.  Curt. 

Note  1.— For  a noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing, 
see  363;  373, 1. 

Note  2. — A Peedicate  Genitive  is  often  nearly  or  quite  equivalent  to  a Predicate 
adjective  (360,  note  1):  hominis  est  = humanum  est^  ‘it  is  the  mark  of  a man,’  ‘is 
human  ’ ; stultl  est  = stultum  est^  ‘ it  is  foolish.’  The  Genitive  is  the  regular  construc- 
tion in  adjectives  of  one  ending : sapientis  est  (for  sapiens  est)^  ‘it  is  the  part  of  a wise 
man,’  ‘ is  wise.’ 

Note  3.— Possessive  pronouns  in  agreement  with  the  subject  supply  the  place  of  the 
Predicate  Genitive  ^ of  personal  pronouns  : 

Est  tuum  (not  hii)  videre,  it  is  your  duty  to  see.  Cic. 

Note  4. — Aequl.,  "bonl.,  and  reliqui  occur  as  Predicate  Genitives  in  such  expressions 
as  aequh  facere.,  aequi  tonlque  facere.,  boni  cbnsule/re.,  ‘to  take  in  good  part,’  and 
reliqui  facere.,  ‘ to  leave  ’ : 

AequI  bomque  facio,  I take  it  in  good  part.  Ter.  Milites  nihil  reliqui  victis  fecere, 
the  soldiers  left  nothing  to  the  vanquished.  Sail. 

1 Literally,  were  of  the  enemy,  or  %cere  the  enemy’s. 

2 Literally,  is  of  a judge. 

3 Here  dicionis.,  denoting  a different  thing  from  marc.,  of  which  it  is  predicated,  is 
put  in  the  Genitive. 

4 This  is  another  illustration  of  the  close  relationship  between  a Predicate  Genitive 
and  a Predicate  Adjective;  see  also  note  %. 


GENITIVE. 


213 


402.  The  Predicate  Genitive  is  generally  Possessive  or  De^ 
scriptive^  rarely  Partitive : 

Haec  hostium  erant,  these  things  were  of  (belonged  to)  the  enemy.  Liv. 
Est  imperdtoy'is  superare,  it  is  the  duty  of  a commander  to  conquer.  Caes. 
Sumrnae  facultatis  est,  he  is  (a  man)  of  the  highest  ability.  Cic.  Opera 
magni  fuit,  the  assistance  was  of  great  value.  Nep.  Fies  nobilium  fonti um,i 
you  will  become  one  of  the  noble  fountains.  Hor. 

403.  The  Predicate  Genitive  occurs  most  frequently  with 
sum  and  facio,  but  sometimes  also  with  verbs  of  seeming,  regard- 
ing, etc.  ; 

Oram  Eomanae  dicionis  fecit,  he  brought  the  coast  under  (made  the  coast 
of)  Roman  rule.  Liv.  Hominis  videtur,  it  seems  to  be  the  mark  of  a man. 
Cic.  See  also  examples  under  401. 

Note.— Transitive  verbs  of  this  class  admit  in  the  active  an  Accusative  with  the 
Genitive,  as  in  the  first  example. 

404.  The  Predicate  Genitive  of  price  or  value  is  used  with 
sum  and  with  verbs  of  valuing : 

Mdgnl  sunt  tuae  litterae,  your  letters  are  of  great  value.  Cic.  Piuris 
esse,  to  be  of  greater  value.  Cic.  Parvi  pendere,  to  think  lightly  of.  Sail. 
Auctoritatem  tuam  magni  aestimo,  I prize  your  authority  highly.  Cic. 

Note  1. — With  these  verbs  the  Genitive  of  price  or  value  is  generally  an  adjective^ 
as  in  the  examples,  but pretii  is  sometimes  used : 

Parvi  pretii  est,  it  is  of  little  value.  Cic. 

Note  2. — NiMH  and,  in  familiar  discourse,  a few  other  Genitives  ^ occur: 

Nihili  facere,  to  take  no  account  of.  Cic.  Non  flocci  pendere,  not  to  care  a strau 
(lock  of  wool)  for.  Plaut. 

405.  Tantl,  quantl,  pluris,  and  minoris  are  also  used  as  Geni- 
tives OF  price  with  verbs  of  buying  and  selling : 

Emit  hortos  tanti,  he  purchased  the  gardens  at  so  great  a price.  Cic. 
Vendo  frumentum  pluris,  I sell  grahi  at  a higher  price.  Cic. 

Note. — For  the  Ablative  of  price.,  see  422. 

RULE  XIX,— Genitive  with  Special  Verbs. 

406.  The  Genitive  is  used — 

I.  With  misereor  and  miseresco  : 

Miserere  laborum,  pity  the  labors.  Verg.  Miserescite  regis,  pity  the 
king.  Verg. 

1 Facilitatis  and  mdgnl  are  Descriptive,  but  fontium  is  Partitive. 

2 The  following  adjectives  are  so  used : mdgnl,  parvl,  tantl,  quantl ; pluris,  mi- 
noris ; plurimi,  maximi,  and  minimi. 

3 As  a.ssis,  fioccl,  naucl,  xndpill. 

^ Observe  that  verbs  of  buying  and  selling  admit  the  Genitive  of  price  only  when 
one  of  these  adjectives  is  used.  In  other  cases  they  take  the  Ablative  of  price. 


214 


GmiTiVE, 


II.  With  recordor,  memini,  reminiscor,  and  obliviscor : * 

Meminit  praeteritorum,  he  rememhers  the  past  Cic.  Oblitus  sum  mei, 
l have  forgotten  myself.  Ter.  Flagitiorum  recordari,  to  recollect  base  deeds, 
Cic.  Reminisci  virtutis,  to  remember  virtue,  Caes. 

III.  With  refert  and  interest : 

Illorum  refert,  it  concerns  them.  Sail.  Interest  omnium,  it  is  the  inters 
est  of  all,  Cic. 

Note. — The  expression,  Venit  in  mentem,,  ‘it  occurs  to  mind,’  is  sometimes  con- 
strued with  the  Genitive  and  sometimes  with  the  Nominative : 

Venit  mihi  Platonis  in  mentera,^  the  recollection  of  Plato  comes  to  my  mind,,  or  1 
recollect  Plato.  Cic.  Non  venit  in  mentem  pugna,  does  not  the  battle  occv/r  to  your 
mindf  Liv. 

407.  Verbs  of  remembering  and  forgetting  often  take  the 
Accusative  instead  of  the  Genitive : 

Memineram  Paullum,  / remembered  Paullus,  Cic.  Triumphos  recordari, 
to  recall  triumphs,  Cic.  Ea  reminiscere,  remember  those  things,  Cic. 

Note  1. — The  Accusative  is  the  common  construction  (1)  with  recordor  and  (2) 
with  the  other  verbs,  if  it  is  a neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  or  designates  an  object  re- 
membered by  a contemporary  or  an  eye-witness. 

Note  2. — The  Ablative  with  de  is  rare  : 

Recordare  de  ceteris,  bethink  yourself  of  the  others,  Cic. 

408.  The  Construction  with  refert  and  interest  is  as  follows : 

I.  The  Person  or  Thing  interested  is  denoted — 

1.  By  the  Genitive,,  as  under  the  rule. 

2.  By  the  Ablative  Feminine  of  the  Possessive,^  This  takes  the  place  of  the 
Genitive  of  personal  pronouns : 

Mea  refert,  it  concerns  me.  Ter.  Interest  mea,  it  interests  me.  Cic. 

3.  By  the  Dative.,  or  Accusative  with  or  without  Ad;  but  rarely,  and 
chiefly  with  refey't.,  which  moreover  often  omits  the  person : 

Quid  refert  viventi,  what  does  it  concern  one  living  ? Hor.  Ad  me  refert, 
it  concerns  me.  Plant. 

II.  The  Subject  of  Importance,  or  that  which  involves  the  interest,  is 
expressed  by  an  Infinitive  or  Clause,  or  by  a Neuter  Pronoun: 


^ The  Genitive  with  verbs  of  pitying.,  remembering.,  and  forgetUng  probably  de- 
pends upon  the  substantive  idea  contained  in  the  verbs  themselves ; see  Internal  Object., 
371,  I.,  2.  Thus,  meminl  with  the  Accusative  means  I remember  distinctly  and  fully., 
generally  used  of  an  eye-witness  or  of  a contemporary  ; but  with  a Genitive,  it  means  to 
have  some  recollection  of.  With  refert  the  Genitive  depends  upon  re.,  the  Ablative  of 
res.,  contained  in  the  verb,  and  with  interest  it  may  be  a Predicate  Genitive,  or  may  sim- 
ply follow  the  analogy  of  refert. 

2 With  vemit  in  mentem.,  the  Genitive  Platonis  supplies  the  place  of  subject.  It 
probably  limits  the  pronominal  subject  already  contained  in  verdt.,  as  in  every  Latin  verh 
it  or  that  of  Plato.,  the  recollection  of  Plato. 

® See  foot-note  1,  above. 


aENITIVB. 


ai5 


Interest  omnium  recte  facere,  to  do  right  is  the  interest  of  all.  Cic.  Vestra 
lioc  interest,  this  interests  you.  Cic. 

III.  The  Degree  of  Interest  is  expressed  by  an  Adverb,  by  a Neuter 
used  adverbially,  or  by  a Genitive  of  Value  (404): 

V estra  maxime  interest,  it  especially  interests  you.  Cic.  Quid  nostra  re- 
fert, what  does  it  concern  us  ? Cic.  Magni  interest  mea,  it  greatly  interests 
me.  Cic. 

IV.  The  Object  or  End  for  which  it  is  important  is  expressed  by  the 
Accusative  with  «c?,  rarely  by  the  Dative ; 

Ad  honorem  nostrum  interest,  it  is  important  for  our  honor.  Cic. 

RULE  XX.— Accusative  and  Genitive. 

409.  The  Accdsative  of  the  Person  and  the  Geni- 
tive of  the  Thing  are  used  with  a few  transitive  verbs : 

I.  With  verbs  of  reminding , admonishing : ^ 

Te  amicitiae  commonefacit,  he  reminds  you  of  friendship.  Cic.  Milites 
necessitatis  monet,  he  reminds  the  soldiers  of  the  necessity.  Ter. 

II.  With  verbs  of  accusing,  convicting,  acquitting 

Viros  sceleris  arguis,  you  accuse  men  of  crime.  Cic.  Levitatis  eum  con- 
vincere, to  convict  him  of  levity.  Cic.  Absolvere  injuriae  eum,  to  acquit 
him  of  injustice.  Cic. 

III.  With  miseret,  paenitet,  pudet,  taedet,  oxA  piget 

Eorum  nos  miseret,  we  pity  them  (it  moves  our  pity  of  them).  Cic. 
Consilii  me  paenitet,  I repent  of  my  purpose.  Cic.  Me  stultitiae  meae 
pudet,  I am  ashamed  of  my  folly.  Cic. 

Note  1. — The  Genitive  of  the  designates,  with  verbs  of  reminding.,  etc.,  that 

to  which  the  attention  is  called ; with  verbs  of  accusing.,  etc. , the  crime,  charge ; and 
with  miseret.,  paenitet.,  etc.,  the  object  which  produces  the  feeling;  see  examples. 

Note  2.— The  personal  verbs  included  under  this  rule  retain  the  Genitive  in  the 
Passive : 

Accusatus  est  proditionis.,  he  was  accused  of  treason.  Nep. 


1 The  Genitive  with  verbs  of  reminding  and  admonishing  may  be  explained  like 
that  with  verbs  of  pitying.,  remembering.,  and  forgetting ; see  foot-note  1,  page  214. 
With  verbs  of  accusing.,  etc.,  the  Genitive  may  also  be  explained  in  the  same  way,  or 
may  depend  upon  nomine.,  crimine.,  or  judicio.,  understood.  Sometimes  one  of  these 
nouns  is  expressed;  see  410,  II.,  1. 

2 The  Genitive  with  paenitet.,  pudet.,  etc.,  like  that  with  venit  in  memiem  (see  406, 
note,  with  foot-note),  depends  upon  the  impersonal  subject  contained  in  the  verb.  Thus, 
te  haec  pudent  means  these  things  shame  you.,  and  me  stultitiae  meae  pudet.,  literally 
rendered,  means  of  my  folly  (i.  e.,  the  thought  of  it,  or  something  about  it),  shames  me. 
The  Genitive  with  miseret  may  be  explained  either  in  the  same  way,  or  like  that  with 
misereor;  see  foot-note  1,  page  214. 


GENITIVE. 


al6‘ 


Note  3. — In  judicial  language  a few  verbs  not  otherwise  so  used  are  treated  as 
v^erbs  of  accusing.  Thus  condico  occurs  with  the  Genitive  in  Livy,  I.,  32. 

410.  Special  Constructions. — The  following  deserve  notice: 

I.  Verbs  of  Reminding  and  Admonishing  sometimes  take,  instead  of 
the  Genitive — 

1.  The  Accusative  of  a neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  rarely  of  a substan- 
iive,  thus  admitting  two  accusatives ; 

lllud  me  admones,  you  admonish  me  of  that.  Cic. 

2.  The  Ablative  with  de — and  its  compounds  generally  so: 

Dejproelib  vos  admonui,  lhave  reminded  you  of  the  battle.  Cic. 

II.  Verbs  of  Accusing,  Convicting,  sometimes  take,  instead  of  the 
Genitive  of  the  crime,  etc. — 

1.  The  Genitive  with  nomine.^  crimine.,  judicio.,  or  some  similar  word: 

Nomine  conjurationis  damnati  sunt,  they  were  condemned  on  the  charge  of 

conspiracy.  Cic.  Innocentem  judicib  capitis  arcessere,  to  arraign  an  inno- 
cent man  on  a capital  charge.  Cic. 

2.  The  Accusative  of  a neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  rarely : 

Id  me  accusas,  you  accuse  me  of  that.  Plaut. 

3.  The  Ablative  alone  or  with  a preposition,  generally  de : 

Re  pectiniis  repetundis  damnatus  est,  he  was  convicted  of  extortion.  Cic. 

III.  With  verbs  of  Condemning,  the  Penalty  is  generally  expressed  by 
the  Ablative j or  by  the  Accusative  with  a preposition.,  usually  ad: 

Tertia  parte  damnari,  to  be  condemned  to  forfeit  a third  of  onds  land.  Liv. 
Capite  damnare,  to  condemn  to  death,  Cic.  Morte  multare,  to  punish  ivith 
death.  Cic.  Ad  bestias  condemnare,  to  condemn  to  the  loild  beasts.  Suet. 

Note  1.— In  the  poets  the  penalty  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Dative: 

Morti  damnatus,  condemned  to  death.  Lucr. 

Note  2. — The  Genitive  occurs  in  such  special  expressions  as  capitis  condemnare,^ 
‘to  condemn  to  death’;  vbtl  damndrl.,‘‘ to  be  condemned  to  fulfil  a vow ‘ to  obtain 
a wish’;  damnari  longi  lahdris.,  ‘to  be  condemned  to  long  labor’;  vbtl  rexis"^  = vbtl 
damnatus.,  ‘ condemned  to  fulfil  a vow  ’ : 

Aliquem  capitis  condemnare,  to  condemn  one  to  death.  Cic.  Damnatus  longi  laboris, 
condemned  to  long  labor.  Hor. 

IV.  With  Miseret,  Paenitet,  Pudet,  Taedet,  and  Piget,  an  Infinitive 
or  Clause  is  sometimes  used,  rarely  a neuter  pronoun  or  nihil  : 

Me  paenitet  vixisse,  7 repent  having  lived.  Cie.  Te  haec  pudent,  these 
things  shame  you.  Ter. 

Note  1. — Like  miseret  are  sometimes  used  miserescit.,  commiserescit.,  miseretur, 
commiseretur.  Like  taedet  are  used  pertaedet,  pertaeswn  est. 

Note  2. — Pudet  sometimes  takes  the  Genitive  of  the  person  before  whom  one  Is 
ashamed : 

Me  tui  pudet,  I am  ashamed  in  your  presence.  Ter.  Pudet  hominum,  it  is  a 
shame  in  the  sight  of  men.  Liv. 

1 Regularly  so  when  the  penalty  is  a definite  sum  of  money. 

Best  explained  as  a substantive. 


ABLA  TIVE. 


217 


Note  8. — Pertaesus  admits  the  Accusative  of  the  object : 

Pertaesus  ignaviam  suam,  disgusted  with  his  own  inaction.  Suet. 

V.  Many  other  verbs  sometimes  take  the  Genitive. ^ Thus — 

1.  Some  verbs  of  'plenty  and  want.^  as  co'nipleo.,  impleo.,^  egeo.,  indigeo.,  like 
adjectives  of  the  same  meaning  (399,  I.,  3) : 

Virtus  exercitationis  indiget,  virtue  requires  exercise.  Cic.  Auxilii  egere, 
fM  need  aid.  Caes.  Multitudinem  rMigionis  implevit, 2 he  inspired  (filled;  the 
multitude  with  religion.  Liv.  Eerum  satagere,  to  he  occupied  W'lth  (to  do 
enough  of)  business.  Ter. 

2.  Some  verbs  of  desire.,  emotion.,  or  feeling.,  like  adjectives  of  the  same 
meaning  (399,  I.,  1) : 

Cupiunt  tui,  they  desire  you.  Plant.  Tui  testimonii  veritus,  fearing  your 
testimony.  Cic.  Animi  3 pendeo,  / am  uncertain  in  mind.  Cic.  Discrucior 
animi,  1 am  troubled  in  spirit.  Plant.  Te  angis  animi,  you  make  yourself 
anxious  in  mind.  Plant.  Desipere  mentis,  to  be  foolish  in  mind.,  or  mistaken 
in  opinion.  Plant. 

3.  A few  verbs  denoting  mastery  or  participation.,  like  adjectives  of  the 
same  meaning  (399,  I.,  3),  potior.,^  adipiscor,  regno  : 

Siciliae  potitus  est,  he  became  master  of  Sicily.  Nep.  Eerum  adeptus  est,  he 
obtained  the  power . T ac.  Eegnavit  populorum,  he  luas  king  of  the  peoples.  Hor. 

4.  In  poets,  a few  verbs  s take  the  Genitive,  instead  of  the  Ablative  of 
Separation  or  Cause  (413) : 

Abstinere  irarum,  to  abstain  from  anger.  Ilor.  Laborum  decipitur,  he  is 
beguiled  of  his  labors.  Hor.  Desine  querelarum,  cease  from  complaints.  Hor. 
Desistere  pugnae,  to  desist  from  the  battle.  Verg.  Eum  culpae  liberare,  to 
free  him  from  blame  (i.  e.,  to  acquit  him).  Liv.  Mirari  laborum,  to  admire 
because  of  toils.  V erg.  Damni  infecti  promittere,  to  give  surety  in  view  of 
expected  damage.  Cic. 

Note.— For  the  Ge'nitive  of  Gerunds  and  Gerumdives,  see  543,  I.;  544. 


SECTION  yil. 


ABLATIVE. 


41 1,  The  Latin  Ablative  performs  the  duties  of  three 
cases  originally  distinct : ® 

I.  The  Ablative  Propee,  denoting  the  relation  from  : 

Expulsus  est  patrid,  he  was  banished  from  his  country.  Cic. 


^ Transitives  of  this  class  of  course  admit  the  Accusative  with  the  Genitive 

2 See  431,  II. 

3 Animl  in  such  instances  is  probably  a Locative  in  origin,  as  animls  is  used  in  the 
same  way  in  the  plural.  See  foot-note  on  animl.,  399,  III.,  1. 

4 Potior  takes  the  Genitive  regularly  when  it  means  to  reduce  to  subjection. 

® As  ahstineo,  decipio,  desino,  desisto,  levO,  libero,  etc. ; miror,  etc. 

® These  three  cases,  still  recognized  in  the  Sanskrit,  originally  had  distinct  forms; 
but  in  the  Latin,  under  the  influence  of  phonetic  change  and  decay,  these  forms  have 


218 


ABLA2IVR 


\ II.  The  Instritmental,  denoting  the  relation  with,  BY ; 

Sol  omnia  luce  collustrat,  the  sun  illumines  all  things  with  its  light.  Cic. 

Y III.  The  Locative,  denoting  the  relation  ik,  at  : 

Se  oppido  tenet,  he  keeps  himself  in  the  town.  Cic. 

I.  Ablative  Proper. 


RULiE  XXI,— Place  from  which. 

412.  The  Place  from  which  is  denoted  by  t]ie  Ablative: 
Generally  with  a preposition — a,  ab,  de,^br  ex  : 

Ah  urhe  proficiscitur,  he  sets  out  from  the  city.  Caes.  De  foro,  from 
the  forum.  Cic.  Ex  Africa, /rom  (out  of)  Liv. 

II.  In  Names  of  Towns  without  a preposition : ^ 


Platonem  Athenis  arcessivit,  he  summoned  Plato  from  Athens.  Nep. 
Fugit  Corintho,  he  fled  from  Corinth.  Cic. 

1.  Many  names  of  islands^  and  the  Ablatives  domo  and  rure^  are  used 
like  names  of  towns : 


Domo  profugit,  he  fled  from  'iome.  Cic.  Delo  proficiscitur,  he  proceeds 
FROM  Delos.  Cic. 


2.  The  Ablative  of  places  not  towns  is  sometimes  used  without  a prepa^ 
sition^  especially  in  poetry  : 

Cadere  nuhihus^  to  fall  from  the  clouds.  Verg.  Labi  equo.^  to  fall  from  a 
HORSE.  Hor. 

3.  The  preposition  is  sometimes  used  with  names  of  towns,  especially 
for  emphasis  or  contrast : 

Ah  Arded  Romam  venerunt,  they  came  from  Ardea  to  Borne.  Liv. 

Note.— The  preposition  is  generally  used  when  the  vicinity.,  rather  than  the  town 
itself,  is  meant : 

Discessit  a Brundisio,  he  departed  from  Brundisium  (i.  e.,  from  the  port).  Caes. 

RUIiE  XXII,— Separation,  Source,  Cause. 

413.  Separation,  Source,  and  Cause  are  denoted  by  the 
Ablative  vnth  or  without  a preposition : 

Separation. — Caedem  a vohls  depello,  I ward  off  slaughter  from  you. 
Cic.  Hunc  a tuis  arts  arcebis,  you  will  keep  this  one  from  your  altars. 

become  identical,  and  their  uses  have  been  blended  in  a single  case  called  the  Ablative. 
On  the  general  subject  of  the  Ahlative  and  its  use.,  see  Merguet,  pp.  109-117 ; Delhriick' 
Hiibschmann,  pp.  82-106;  Holzweissig,  pp.  28  and  75;  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  494-571;  Roby 
II.,  pp.  68-115. 

^ This  was  the  original  construction  for  all  places  alike. 


ABLATIVE. 


219 


Uic.  Expulsus  est  patria,  he  was  banished  from  his  country.  Cic.  Urbem 
commeatu  privavit,  he  deprived  the  city  of  supplies.  Nep.  Conatu  desti- 
terunt, they  desisted  from  the  attempt.  Caes.  Vagina  eripe  ferrum,  draw 
your  sivord from  its  scabbard.  Verg. 

Source. — Hoc  audivi  de  parente  med^  I heard  this  from  my  father.  Cic» 
Oriundi  ab  Sahlnis^  descended  from  the  Sabines.  Liv.  Statua  ex  aere 
facta,  a statue  made  of  bronze.  Cic.  Abiete  puppis,  the  stern  made  of  fir. 
Verg.  Jove  natus,  son  of  Jupiter.  Cic. 

Cause. — Ars  utilitate  laudatur,  an  art  is  praised,  because  of  its  useful- 
ness. Cic.  Lacrimo  gaudio I weep  for  (on  account  of)  joy.  Ter.  Vestra 
hoc  causa  volebam,  I desired  this  on  your  account.  Cic.  Rogatu  veneram,  I 
had  come  by  request.  Cic.  Ex  vulnere  aeger,  ill  in  consequence  of  his  wound. 
Cic.  Aeger  erat  vulneribus,  he  was  ill  in  consequence  of  his  wounds.  Nep. 

Note  Transitive  Verbs  admit  an  Accusative  with  the  Ablative;  see  examples. 

Note  2. — The  prepositions  most  frequently  used  with  the  Ablative  of  Separation 
and  Source  are  «,  e,  ecc,  and  with  the  Ablative  of  Cause,  cZc,  e,  ex. 

Note  3. — With  the  Ablative  of  Separation  the  preposition  is  more  freely  used  when 
the  separation  is  local  and  literal  than  when  it  is  figurative : de  ford.,  ‘ from  the  forum 
ex  Asia fow-t  of  Asia’;  but  l&cd/re  metu.,'"  to  relieve  from  fear’;  cbndtu  desisterej  io 
desist  from  the  undertaking.’ 

Note  4. — For  the  Genitive  instead  of  the  Ablative  of  Separation.,  see  410,  V.,  4; 
and  for  the  Dative  similarly  used,  see  385,  2. 

414.  The  Ablative  op  Separation  designates  that  from  which 
anything  is  separated,  or  of  which  it  is  deprived,  and  is  generally 
used  without  a preposition  in  the  following  situations : 

I.  With  verbs  meaning  to  relieve.,  deprive^  need.,  be  without:  ^ 

Leva  me  hoc  onere.,  relieve  me  of  this  burden.  Cic.  Vinclis  exsolvere,  to 
release  from  chains.  Plaut.  Molestia  expedire,  to  relieve  of  trouble.  Cic. 
Militem  praeda  fraudare,  to  defraud  the  soldiery  of  booty.  Liv.  Non  egeo 
medicina,  I do  7iot  need  a remedy.  Cic.  Vacare  culpa,  to  be  free  from  fault. 
Cic.  See  also  examples  under  413. 

II.  With  moveo  in  special  expressions  : ^ 

Signum  movere  loco.,  to  move  the  standard  from  the  place.  Cic. 

III.  With  adjectives  meaning  free  from.,  destitute  of 

Animus  liber  curd.,  a mind  free  from  care.  Cic.  Expers  metu.,  Tree  from 
FEAR.  Cic.  Urbs  nuda  praesidio,  a city  destitute  of  defence.  Cic. 

Note.— For  a similar  use  of  the  Genitive,^  see  399, 1.,  3. 

IV.  With  opus  and  usus,  meaning  need: 

1 As  expedio.,  exonero,  levo,  relevo.  Ubero,  relaxo,  soVvo,  absolvO,  exsolvo ; exuo, 
fratido,  nudo,  orbo,  spolio,  privo,  etc. 

2 As  in  movere  loco,  movere  senatu,  movere  tribu,  movere  vestigio. 

^ A or  ab  is  generally  used  with  names  of  persons  and  sometimes  with  other  words. 

< Egenus,  indigus,  sterilis,  and  some  others  are  freely  used  with  the  Genitive:  see 
399,  I.,  3 


230 


ABLATIVE. 


Auctoritate  tud  nobis  opus  est,  we  need  (tbere  is  to  us  a need  of)  your 
AUTHORITY.  Cic.  Usus  est  tua  inihl  AID.  Plaut. 

Note  1.— In  most  other  instances  a preposition  accompanies  the  Ablative  of  Separa- 
tion, though  often  omitted  in  poetry  and  in  late  prose. 

Note  2. — Opus  est  and  usus  est  admit  the  Dative  of  the  person  with  the  Ablative  of 
the  thing;  see  examples. 

Note  3. — With  opus  and  usus^  the  Ablative  is  sometimes  a perfect  participle,  or, 
with  op^is^  a noun  and  a participle  : » 

Consulto  opus  est,  there  is  need  of  deliberation.  Sail.  Opus  fuit  Hirtio  convento 
there  was  need  of  meeting  Hirtius.  Cic. 

Note  4. — With  opus  est.,  rarely  with  usus  esU  the  thing  needed  may  be  denoted— 

1)  By  the  Nominative,  rarely  by  the  Genitive  or  Accusative : 

Dux  nobis  opus  est,  we  need  a leader.,  or  a leader  is  necessary  (a  necessity)  for  us. 
Cic.  Temporis  opus  est,  there  is  need  of  time.  Liv.  Opus  est  cibum,  there  is  need  of 
food.  Plaut. 

2)  By  an  Infinitive,  a Clause,  or  a Supine : 

Opus  est  to  valere,  it  is  necessary  that  you  be  well.  Cic.  Opus  est  ut  lavem,  it  is 
necessary  for  me  to  bathe  (that  I bathe).  Plaut.  Dictu  est  opus,  it  is  necessary  to  be 
told.  Ter. 

415.  The  Ablative  of  Source  more  commonly  takes  a prepo- 
sition ; see  examples  under  413.  It  includes  agency parentage^ 
material^  etc.  L 

I, . The  agent  or  author  of  an  action  is  designated  by  the  Ablative  with 
a or  ab : 

Occisus  est  a Thebanis,  he  ivas  slain  by  the  Thebans.  Nep.  Occidit  a forti 
Achille,  he  was  slain  (lit.,  fell)  by  brave  Achilles.  Ov. 

1.  The  Ablative  without  a preposition  may  be  used  of  a person.,  regarded 
not  as  the  author  of  the  action,  but  as  the  means  by  which  it  is  effected  : 

Cornua  Numidls^  firmat,  he  strengthens  the  wings  with  Numidians.  Liv. 

Note  1. — The  Accusative  with  per  may  be  used  of  person  through  whose  agency 
the  action  is  effected : 

Ab  Oppianico  per  Fabricids'^  factum  est,  it  was  accomplished  by  Oppianicus 

THROUGH  the  AGENCY  OF  THE  FaBRICII.  CiC. 

Note  2. — For  the  Dative  of  Agent.,  see  388. 

2.  When  anything  is  personified  as  agent,  the  Ablative  with  a or  ab  may 
be  used  as  in  the  names  of  persons  : 

Vinci  a voluptate,  ^(9  be  conquered  by  pleasure.  Cic.  A fortuna  datam  oc- 
casionem, an  opportunity  furnished  by  fortune.  Nep. 

II.  Perfect  Participles  denoting  parentage  or  birth — genitus.,  natus., 
97'tus.,  etc. — generally  take  the  Ablative  without  a preposition : 

Jove  natus,  son  of  Jupiter.  Cic.  Tantalo  prognatus,  descended  from  Tan- 
talus. Cic.  Parentibus  nati  humilibus,  born  of  humble  parents.  Cic. 

^ Here  note  the  distinction  between  the  Ablative  with  ab  {ah  Oppianico).,  denoting 
the  author  of  the  action,  the  Accusative  with  per  {per  Fabricios).,  the  person  through 
whose  agency  the  action  was  performed,  and  the  Ablative  alone  {Humidls).,  the  means 
of  the  action. 


ABLATIVE. 


231 


Note. — In  designating  Eemote  Ancestry,  d or  ah  is  generally  used ; but  after  ndtui 
and  ortus ^ the  Ablatives  familid^  genere^  loco^  and  stirpe^  when  modified  by  an  adjec- 
tive, omit  the  preposition  : 

Oriundi  ab  Sabinis,  descended  from  the  Sahines.  Liv.  Orti  ab  Germanis,  sprung 
from  the  Germans.  Caes.  Nobili  genere  natus,  horn  of  a nohle  f amily.  Sail.  ^ 

III.  With  the  Ablative  of  Material,  e or  ex  is  generally  used,  though 
often  omitted,  especially  in  poetry : 

Statua  ex  aere  facta,  a statue  made  of  bronze.  Cic.  Pocula  ex  auro,  ciips 
of  gold.  Cic.  Aere  cavo  clipeus,  a shield  of  concave  bronze.  Verg.  Abiete  ^ 
puppis,  the  stern  made  of  fir.  V erg. 

Note  1.— A special  use  of  the  Ablative,  kindred  to  the  above,  is  seen  with  /Id, 

and  sum  in  such  expressions  as  the  following : 

Quid  hoc  homine  facias,  ichat  are  you  to  do  with  th^s  man  ? Cic.  Quid  illo  fiet, 
what  will  become  of  him  ? Cic.  Quid  te  futurum  est,  ichat  will  become  of  you  ? Cic. 

Note  2.— The  Dative  or  the  Ablative  with  de  occurs  in  nearly  the  same  sense  : 

Quid  huic  homini  facias,  what  are  you  to  do  with  (or  to)  this  man  ? Cic.  Quid  de 
te  futurum  est,  what  will  become  of  you  ? Cic. 

416.  The  Ablative  of  Cause  is  generally  used  without  a prepo- 
sition.^ It  designates  that  hy  reason  of  which  ^ because  of  which.,  in 
accordance  with  which  anything  is  or  is  done,  and  is  used  both  with 
nerhs  and  with  adjectives;^  see  examples  under  413. 

I.  Cause  is  sometimes  denoted — 

1)  By  the  Ablative  with  a,  ab,  de,  e,  ex,  prae : 

Ab  eadem  superbia  ^ non  venire,  not  to  come  because  of  the  same  haughti- 
ness. Liv.  Ex  vulnere  3 aeger,  ill  'in  consequence  of  his  wound.  Cic.  Ex 
invidia  laborare,  to  suffer  from  unpopularity.  Cic.  Non  prae  lacrimis  scri- 
bere, not  to  write  in  consequence  of  tears.  Cic. 

By  the  Accusative  with  ob,  per,  propter : ° 

Per  aetatem  inutiles,  useless  because  of  (lit.,  through')  their  age.  Caes.  In 
oppidum  propter  timorem  sese  recipiunt,  they  betake  themselves  into  the  city 
on  account  of  their  fear.  Caes. 

Note  1.— With  transitive  verbs  the  motive  which  prompts  the  action  is  often  ex- 
pressed  by  the  Ablative  ivith  a perfect  passive  participle : 

Kegni  cupiditate  ^ inductus  conjurationem  fecit,  influenced  by  the  desire  of  ruling.^ 
he  formed  a conspiracy.  Caes. 

Note  2. — That  in  accordance  with  which  anything  is  done  is  often  denoted  by  tlie 
Ablative  with  e or  ex : 

1 The  Ablative  of  Cause  is  very  far  removed  from  the  original  meaning  of  the  Abla- 
tive, and  indeed  in  some  of  its  uses  was  probably  derived  from  the  Instrumental  Abla- 
tive; see  418. 

2 This  includes  such  Ablatives  as  meb  judicio^  in  accordance  with  my  opinion;  med 
sententia.,  jussu.,  impulsu.,  monitu,  etc. ; ca\isd,  grdtid ; also  the  Ablative  with  de- 
sipio., doleo,  exsilio.,  exsulto,  gaudeo,  laboro,  lacrimo,  laetor,  triumpho,  etc. 

3 See  note  2,  foot-note. 

4 Here  cupiditdte  must  be  construed  with  inductus,  yet  it  really  expresses  the  caxm 
of  the  action,  fecit. 


222 


ABLATIVE. 


Kes  ex  foedere  repetuntur,  restitution  is  demanded  in  accobdance  with  the 
TREATY.  Liv.  Dies  ex  praeceptis  tuis  uctus,  a day  passed  in  accordance  with  your 
PRECEPTS.  Cic.  Ex  veritate  aestimare,  to  estimate  in  accordance  with  the  truth,  Oic. 
Ex  auctoritate  ^ senatus  confirmare,  to  ratify  on  the  authority  of  the  senate.  Liv. 

/ RULE  XXIII.— Ablative  with  Comparatives. 

^417.  Comparatives  without  quam  are  followed  by  the 
Ablative  : ^ 

'^Nihil  est  amabilius  virtutef  notlimg  is  more  lovely  than  yirtue.  Cie, 
Quid  est  melius  honitdte^  what  is  better  than  goodness  ? Cic.  Sclmus  so- 
lem majorem  esse  terra, ^ we  know  that  the  sun  is  larger  than  the  earth,  Cic. 
Amicitia,  qua  nihil  melius  habemus,  friendship,,  than  which  v)e  have  nothing 
better.  Cic.  Lacrima  nihil  citius  arescit,  nothing  dries  sootier  than  a tear. 
Cic.  Potiorem  Ira  salutem  habet,  he  regards  safety  as  better  than  anger.  Liv. 
4:^1.  Comparatives  with  Quam  are  followed  by  the  Nominative,  or  by  the 
case  of  the  corresponding  noun  before  them : 

Hibernia  minor  quam  Britannia  existimatur,  Ireland  is  considered  smaller 
than  Britain.  Caes.  Agris  quam  urhl  terribilior,  more  terrible  to  the  country 
than  TO  the  city.  Liv. 

Note  1. — The  construction  with  quam  is  the  full  form  for  which  the  Ablative  is  an 
abbreviation.  The  Ablative  is  freely  used  for  quam  with  a Subject  Nominative  or  Sub- 
ject Accusative — regularly  so  for  quam  with  the  Nominative  or  Accusative  of  a rela- 
tive pronoun.,  as  in  the  fourth  example  under  the  rule.  In  other  cases  quam  is  retained 
in  the  best  prose,  though  sometimes  omitted  in  poetry. 

Note  2. — After  plus,  minus.,  amplius.,  or  longius.,  in  expressions  of  number  and 
quantity,  quam  is  often  omitted  without  infiuence  upon  the  construction ; ^ sometimes 
also  after  major.,  minor.,  etc. : 

Tecum  plus  annum  vixit,  he  lived  icith  you  more  than  a year.  Cic.  Minus  duo 
milia,  less  than  two  thousand.  Liv. 

Note  3.— Instead  of  the  Ablative  after  a comparative,  a preposition  with  its  case,  as 
ante.,  prae.,  praeter.,  or  supra.,  is  sometimes  used : 

Ante  alios  immanior,  more  monstrous  than  (before)  the  others.  Verg. 

Note  4. — Alius,  involving  a comparison,  ofhe/r  than.,  is  sometimes  used  with  the 
Ablative . 

1 These  and  similar  Ablatives  with  prepositions  show  the  transition  from  source  to 
cause.,  and  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  the  latter  was  developed  from  the  former.  The 
Ablative  with  the  preposition  seems  in  general  to  retain  something  of  the  idea  of  source. 

2 This  Ablative  furnishes  the  sta.ndard.  of  comparison — that  from  which  one  starts. 
Thus,  \i  virtue  is  taken  as  the  standard  of  what  is  lovely,  nothing  is  more  so.  This  Abla^ 
tive  is  sometimes  explained  as  instrumental  (418),  but  that  view  is  controverted  by  a 
similar  use  of  the  Greek  Genitive,  which  does  not  contain  the  instrumental  Ablative,  and 
of  the  Sanskrit  Ablative,  which  is  often  distinct  from  the  instrumental. 

3 Virtute  = quam  virtiis ; bonitate  = quam  bonitas  ; terra  = quam  terram  (sc. 
essej. 

4 So  in  expressions  of  age  : ndtus  plus  triginta  annos.,  ‘having  been  born  more  than 
thirty  years.'  The  same  meaning  is  also  expressed  by  major  triginta  annos  ndtus^ 
major  triginta  annis.,  major  quam  triginta  a/nnbrumy  or  major  triginta  annorum. 


ABLATIVE. 


223 


Quaerit  alia  his,  he  seeks  other  things  than  these.  Plaut.  Alius  sapiente,  other  than 
' a wise  man.  Hor. 

Note  5. — Qitam  pro  denotes  disproportion,  and  many  Ablatives — opinione^  spe^ 
aequo^  jiisto^  solito^  etc. — are  often  best  rendered  by  clauses ; 

Minor  caedes  quam  pro  victoria,  less  slaughter  than  was  proportionate  to  the  wc- 
tory.  Liv.  Serius  spe  venit,  he  came  late/r  than  was  hoped  (than  hope).  Liv.  Plus 
aequo,  more  than  is  fair.  Cic. 

2.  With  Comparatives.,  the  Measure  of  Difference,*  the  amount  by 
which  one  thing  surpasses  another,  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative : 

Hibernia  dimidio  minor  quam  Britannia,  Ireland  smaller  by  one  half  than 
Britain.  Caes. 

II.  Instrumental  Ablative. 

418.  The  Instrumental  Ablative  denotes  both  Accom- 
paniment and  Means. 


c 


RULE  XXIV.— Ablative  of  Accompaniment. 

/ 419.  The  Ablative  is  used — ^ 

/ I.  To  denote  Accompaniment.  It  then  takes  the  prepo- 
igition  cum : 


Vivit  cum  Balho,  he  lives  with  Balbus.  Cic.  Cum  gladiis  stant,  they 
stand  with  swords  (i.  e.,  armed  with  swords).  Cic. 


-f 


II.  To  denote  Characteristic  or  Quality. 
modified  by  an  adjective  or  by  a Genitive  : 


It  is  then 


Summd  virtute  adulescens,  a youth  of  the  highest  virtue.  Caes.  Qui- 
dam magno  capite,  ore  rubicundo,  magnis  pedibus,  a certain  one  with  a 
large  head,  with  a red  face,  and  with  large  feet.  Plaut.  Catilina  ingenio 
malo  fuit,  Catiline  was  a man  of  a had  spirit.  Sail.  UrI  sunt  specie  taurl, 
the  urus  is  (lit.,  the  uri  are)  of  the  appearance  of  a bull.  Caes. 


Note. — The  Ablative,  when  used  to  denote  cha7'acteristic  or  quality,  may  be  called 
either  the  Descriptive  Ablative  or  the  Ablative  of  Characteristic. 

III.  To  denote  Manner.^  It  then  takes  the  preposition 
modified  by^m  ac^ctive^^^o^  a Genitive  ; 


1 See  423. 

2 The  idea  of  means  was  probably  developed  from  that  of  accompaniment,  as  seen 
in  such  expressions  as  cum  omnibus  copils  sequitur,  ‘ he  pursues  with  all  his  forces  ’ — 
accompanimmt,  which  readily  suggests  means,  as  he  employs  his  forces  as  means; 
equls  Iverunt,  ‘ they  went  with  horses  ''—accompaniment  and  means.  Some  scholars 
have  conjectured  that  originally  accompaniment  and  means  were  expressed  by  separate 
case-forms,  but  of  this  there  seems  to  be  little  proof 

3 Note  the  close  connection  between  these  three  uses  of  the  Ablative — the  first  desig- 
nating an  attendant  person  or  thing— Balbus,  with  sicords;  the  second,  an  at^ 
te/ndant  quality — a youth  with  (attended  by)  the  highest  virtue;  the  third,  an  att&ndr 


X. 


224 


ABLATIVE. 


Cum  virtute  vixit,  he  lived  virtuously.  Cic.  Summa  vl  proelium  com 
miserunt,  they  joined  battle  with  the  greatest  violence.  Nep.  Duobus 
modis  fit,  it  is  done  in  two  ways.  Cic. 

Note  1.— The  Ablative  of  manme/r  sometimes  takes  cmn  even  when  modified  by  an 
adjective : 

Magna  cmn  curd  scripsit,  he  wrote  with  great  care.  Cic. 

Note  2. — But  the  Ablative  of  a few  words  is  sometimes  used  without  cum.,  even 
when  unattended  by  an  adjective,  as  jure,  ‘rightly’;  injuria,  ‘unjustly’;  ordine,  ‘in 
an  orderly  manner’ ; rat/ibne,  ‘ systematically’ ; silentio,  ‘in  silence,’  etc.^ 

Note  8. — Per,  with  the  Accusative,  sometimes  denotes  manner  : pe/r  vim,  ‘violent- 
ly ’ ; per  ludum,  ‘ sportively.’ 

1.  On  the  Ablative  of  Accompaniment,  observe — 

1)  That  cum  is  often  omitted — (1)  especially  when  the  Ablative  is  qualified 
by  an  adjective,  and  (2)  jungb,  misceo,  and  their  compounds  : 

Ingenti  exercitu  profectus  est,  he  set  out  ivith  a large  army.  Liv.  Im- 
probitas scelere  jfincta,  depravity  joined  with  crime.  Cic. 

2)  That  the  Ablative  with  cum  is  often  used  of  hostile  encounters : 

Cum  Gallis  certare,  to  fight  with  the  Gauls.  Sail.  Nobiscum  hostes  con- 
tenderunt, the  enemy  contended  with  us.  Cic. 

Note.— For  the  Dative  with  verbs  denoting  union  or  contention,  see  385,  4,  3). 

2.  On  the  Descriptive  Ablative,  as  compared  with  the  Descriptive 
Genitive,  observe — 

1)  That  in  descriptions  involving  size  and  number,  the  Genitive  is  used; 
see  examples  under  396,  V. 

2)  That  in  most  descriptions  involving  external  characteristics,  parts  of  the 
body,  and  the  like,  the  Ablative  is  used,  as  in  the  second  and  fourth  examples 
under  419,  II. 

3)  That  in  other  instances  either  case  may  be  used. 

4)  That  the  Ablative,  like  the  Genitive,  may  be  used  either  with  nouns, 
as  in  the  first  and  second  examples  under  419,  II.,  or  with  verbs  in  the  predi- 
cate, as  in  the  other  examples. 


. RUIiE  XXV,— Ablative  of  Means, 

'v  420.  Insteument  and  Means  are  denoted  by  the  Abla- 
/ tive : 

Cornibus  taurl  se  tutantur,  hulls  defend  themselves  with  their  horns. 
Cic.  Gloria  ducitur,  he  is  led  by  glory.  Cic.  Sol  omnia  luce  collustrat, 
the  sun  illumines  all  things  with  its  light.  Cic.  Lacte  vivunt,  they  live  upon 
milk.  Caes.  Tellus  saucia  vomeribus,  the  earth  turned  (wounded)  with  the 
ploughshare.  Ovid. 

ant  circumstance — to  live  with  virtue,  virtuously.  Compare  cum  Balbo  vivere  and 
emn  virtute  vivere. 

1 But  perhaps  most  Ablatives  which  never  take  cum  are  best  explained  as  the  Abla- 
tive of  caxise — as  ‘ according  to  law’;  consuetudine,  ‘according  to  custom’;  cbm 

‘ on  purposic,’ etc. 


ABLATIVE. 


235 


Note. — This  Ablative  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  is  used  both  with  'cer'hs  and  with 
2ctjectives. 

1.  The  following  expressions  deserve  notice : 

1)  Quadraginta  hostiis  sacrificare,  to  sacrifice  with  forty  victims.  Liv. 
Facere  vitula,  to  make  a sacrifice  of  (lit.,  with)  a female  calf.  Verg. 

2)  Fidibus  cantare,  to  play  upon  a stringed  instrument.  Cic.  Pila  liidere, 
to  play  at  hall  (lit.,  with  the  ball).  Hor. 

3)  Aurelia  via  proficisci,  to  set  out  hy  the  Aurelian  way.  Cic.  Eodem 
itinere  ire,  to  go  hy  the  same  road.  Liv.  Esquilina  porta  ingredi,  to  enter  by 
the  Esquiline  gate.  Liv. 

4)  Virtute  praeditus,  possessed  of  virtue.  Cic.  Legiones  pulchris  armis 
praeditas,  legions  furnished  with  beautiful  arms.  Plaut. 

2.  Adjicio  loith  the  Ablative  forms  a very  common  circumlocution  : honore 
adjicere  = honorare,  to  honor  / admwdtione  adjicere  = admirari,  to  admire  ; poe- 
na adjicere  = punire,  to  punish.,  etc. : 

Omnes  laetitia  adficit,  he  gladdens  all.  Cic. 

RULE  XXVI.— Ablative  in  Special  Constructions.^ 

/ 421.  The  Ablative  is  used — 

' I.  With  fruor,  fungor,  pot.i,nr^  vescor,  and  their  compounds : 

Plurimis  rebus  fruimur  et  utimur,  lue  enjoy  and  use  very  many  things. 
Cic.  Magna  praeda  potitus,  he  obtained  great  booty.  Nep.  Lacte  et 
carne  vescebantur,  they  lived  upon  milk  and  flesh.  Sail. 

II.  With  Verbs  and  Adjectives  of  Plenty: 

Villa  abundat  lacte.,  cased.,  meile ; the  villa  abounds  in  milk,  cheese,  and 
honey.  Cic.  Urbs  referta  a WITH  SUPPLIES.  Cic.  Virtute 

praeditus,  endowed  with  virtue.  Cic.  Deus  bonis  explevit  mundum,  Ood 
has  filled  the  luorld  with  blessings.  Cic. 

\/  III.  With  dignus,  indignus,^  and  contentus : 

Digni  sunt  amicitia.,  they  are  worthy  of  friendship.  Cic.  Vir  patre 
dignus,  a man  worthy  of  his  father.  Cic.  Honore  indignissimus,  most  un- 
worthy of  honor.  Cic.  b cordQnidi.,  nature  content  with  little.  Cic. 

Note  1. — Transitive  verbs  of  Plenty  ^ take  the  Accusative  and  Ablative: 

Armis  naves  onerat,  he  loads  the  ships  with  arms.  Sail.  See  also  the  last 
example  under  431,  II. 

Note  2. — Dignor.,  as  a Passive  verb  meaning  ‘ to  be  deemed  worthy,’ 

1 This  Ablative  is  readily  explained  as  the  Ablative  of  means:  thus,  iitor.,  ‘I  use,’  ‘I 
serve  myself  hy  means  qP ; fruor.,  ‘I  enjoy,’  ‘I  delight  myself  with'' ; vescor^  ‘I  feed 
upon,’  ‘ 1 feed  myself  loithl'  etc. 

2 The  nature  of  the  Ablative  with  dignus  and  indignus  is  somewhat  uncertain.  On 
etymological  grounds  it  is  explained  as  instrumental;  see  Delbriick,  p.  72;  Corssen, 
‘Krit.  Beitr.,’  p.  47. 

3 Transitive  verbs  of  plenty  mean  ‘to  fill,’  ‘to  furnish  with,’  etc.,  as  cu/mulo,  comr 
pleo.,  impleo.,  imbuo.,  Instruo.,  onerO.,  orno.,  etc. 

16 


226 


ABLATIVE. 


takes  the  Ablative ; but  as  a Deponent  verb  meaning  ‘ to  deem  worthy,’  used 
only  in  poetry  and  late  prose,  it  takes  the  Accusative  and  Ablative  : 

Honore  dignati  sunt,  they  have  been  deemed  worthy  of  honor.  Cic.  Me 
dignor  honore,  I deem  myself  worthy  of  honor.  Verg. 

Note  3. — Dignus  and  indignus  occur  with  the  Genitive : 

Dignus  salutis,  vjorthy  of  safety.  Plaut.  Indignus  avorum,  unworthy  of  their  an- 
cestors.  Yerg. 

Note  4. — tjtor,  fruor.,  fungor.,  potior.,  and  vescor,  originally  transitive,  are  occa- 
sionally so  used  in  classic  authors.  Their  participle  in  dus  is  passive  in  sense.  Utor 
admits  two  Ablatives  of  the  same  person  or  thing : 

Me  utetur  patre,  he  will  find,  (use)  me  a father.  Ter. 

Note  5.— For  the  Genitive  with  potior,  see  410,  Y.,  3.  For  the  Genitive  with  verbs 
and  adjectives  of  plenty,  and  for  the  Accusative  and  Genitive  with  iiransitive  verbs 
of  plemty,  see  410,  Y.,  1,  with  foot-note,  and  399, 1.,  3. 

RUIiE  XXVII.— Ablative  of  Price. 

422.  Price  is  generally  denoted  by  the  AblatiYe : 

Y endidit  aurd  patriam,  he  sold  his  country  for  gold.  Y erg.  Conduxit  mdg^ 
no  domum,  he  hired  a house  at  a high  price.  Cic.  Multo  sanguine  Poenis 
victoria  stetit,  the  victory  cost  the  Carthaginians  (stood  to  the  Carthaginians 
at)  much  blood.  Liv.  Quinquaginta  talentis  aestimari,  to  be  valued  at  fifty 
talents.  Nep.  Ylle  est  viginti  minis,  it  is  cheap  at  twenty  minae.  Plaut. 

Note  1. — The  Ablative  of  Price  is  used  (1)  with  verbs  of  buying,  selling,  hiring, 
letting ; (2)  of  costing,  of  being  cheap  or  dear;  ^ (3)  of  valuing;  (4)  with  adjectives  of 
value.i 

Note  2. — With  verbs  of  Exchanging— commuto,  etc.— (1)  the  thing  received 
is  generally  treated  as  the  price,  as  wdth  verbs  of  selling,  but  (2)  sometimes  the  thing 
givem.  is  treated  as  the  price,  as  with  verbs  of  bu/ying,  or  is  put  in  the  Ablative  with  cwm : 

Pace  bellum  mutavit,  he  exchanged  war  for  peace.  Sail,  Exsilium  patria  muta- 
vit, he  exchanged  ms  country  for  exile.  Curt.  Cum  patriae  vTaritate  gloriam  comr»u 
tavit,  he  exchanged  love  of  country  for  glory.  Cic. 

Note  3.— For  the  Genitive  of  Price,  see  405. 

RULE  XXVIII.— Ablative  of  Difference. 

423.  The  Measure  of  Difference  is  denoted  by  the 
Ablative : 

Tind  die  longiorem  mensem  faciunt,  they  make  the  month  one  dky  longer 
(longer  by  one  day).  Cic.  Bidud  me  antecessit,  he  preceded  me  by  two 
DAYS.  Cic.  Sol  multls  partibus  major  est  quam  terra,  the  sum  is  very  much 
(lit.,  BY  MANY  parts)  larger  than  the  earth.  Cic. 

Note  1.— The  Ablative  is  thus  used  with  all  words  involving  a comparison,  but  ad- 
verbs often  supply  its  place : .multum  robustior,  ‘ much  more  robust.’ 

Note  2. — The  Ablative  of  difference  includes  the  Ablative  of  distance  (379,  2),  and 
the  Ablative  with  ante,  post,  and  abhinc  in  expressions  of  time  (430). 


^ As  std,  cdnsto,  liceo,  .sum,  etc. ; carus,  vendlis,  etc. 


ABLATIVE. 


m 


RTTLi£  XXIX. — Specification. 

V>24.  A noun,  adjective,  or  verb  may  take  an  Ablative 
to  define  its  application  : 

Agesilaus  nomine^  non  ’potentate  fuit  rex,  Agesilaus  was  king  in  name, 
710^  IN  POWER.  Nep.  Claudus  altero  pede^  lame  in  one  foot.  Nep.  Morn 
bus  similes,  similar  in  character.  Cic.  Keliquos  Gallos  virtute  praecedunt, 
they  surpass  the  other  Gauls  in  courage.  Caes. 

Note  1. — This  Ablative  shows  in  what  respect  or  particular  anything  is  true; 
thus,  kinp  (in  wtiat  respect?)  in  name. 

Note  2.— For  the  Accusative  of  Specification,  see  378. 

III.  Locative  Ablative. 

. RULE  XXX.— Place  in  which. 

/X  425.  The  Place  in  which  is  denoted — 

/ I.  Generally  by  the  Locative  Ablative  ^ with  the  preposi- 
tion  in  : 

Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Hannibal  ivas  in  Italy.  Nep.  In  nostris  castris, 
p our  camp.  Caes.  In  Appia  via,  on  the  Appian  way.  Cic. 

'^II.  In  Names  of  Towns  by  the  Locative,'"  if  such  a 
(form  exists,  otherwise  by  the  Locative  Ablative: 

Romae  fuit,  he  was  at  Rome.  Cic.  Corinthi  pueros  docebat,  he  taught 
boys  AT  Corinth.  Cic.  Athenis  fuit,  he  was  at  Athens.  Cic.  Hoc  facis 
Argis,  you  do  this  at  Argos.  Hor.  Karthagine  reges  creabantur,  kings 
were  elected  (created)  at  Carthage.  Nep.  Gadibus  vixit,  he  lived  at  Gades. 
Cic. 

Note.— For  the  construction  with  verbs  meaning  to  collect  to  come  together.,  and 
with  those  meaning  to  place.,  see  380,  note. 

1.  In  the  names  of  places  which  are  not  towns,  the  Locative  Ablative 
is  often  used  without  a preposition : 

^ 1)  When  the  idea  of  means ^ manner.,  or  cause  is  combined  with  that  of 
[place : * 

Castris  se  tenuit,  he  kept  himself  in  camp.  Caes.  Aliquem  tecto  recipere, 
to  receive  any  one  in  one’s  own  house.  Cic.  Proelio  cadere,  to  fall  in  battle. 
Caes.  Adulescentibus  delectari,  to  take  pleasure  in  the  young.  Cic.  Sua 


1 The  learner  will  remember  that  the  Locative  Ablative  does  not  differ  in  form  from 
any  other  Ablative;  see  411. 

2 See  48,  4;  51,  8;  66,  4.  The  Locative  was  the  original  construction  in  all  names 
of  places. 

3 In  some  cases  place  and  means  are  so  combined  that  it  is  dMcult  to  determine 
which  is  the  original  conception. 


^28 


AMLAftVB. 


Victoria  gloriantur,  they  glory  in  their  victory,  Caes.  Nullo  officio  assuefacti, 
trained  in  no  duty.  Caes. 

Note.— The  Ablative  is  generally  used  with  fldo^  confido^  nitor.,  irmltor.,  and  fretus: 

Nemo  fortunae  stabilitate  confidit,  no  one  trusts  (confides  in)  the  stability  of  for- 
tune.  Cic.  Saliis  veritMe  nititur,  safety  rests  upon  truth.  Cic.  Fretus  amicis,  relying 
upon  his  friends.  Liv. 

2)  When  the  idea  of  place  is  figurative  rather  than  literal: 

Nova  pectore  versat  consilia,  she  devises  (turns  over)  new  plans  in  her 
BREAST.  Verg.  Stare  judiciis.,  to  abide  by  (stand  in)  the  decisions.  Cic. 
Promissis  manere,  to  remain  true  to  promises  (lit.,  remain  in).  Verg.  Pen- 
dere animis,!  to  be  perplexed  in  mind.  Cic.  Intimis  sensibus  angi,  to  be 
troubled  in  one's  inmost  feelings.  Cic.  Ferox  bello,  valiant  in  war.  Hor. 
Jure  peritus,  shilled  in  law.  Cic. 

^ 2.  The  Ablatives  loco.,  locis.,  parte.,  partibus.,  dextra.,  laeva,  and  sinistra 
'are  often  used  without  the  preposition.  Terra  and  marl  and  Ablatives 
with  totus  are  generally  so  used. 

Aliquid  loco  ponere,  to  put  anything  in  its  place.  Cic.  Terra  marique,  on 
land  and  sea.  Liv.  Tota  Graecia,  in  all  Greece.  Nep. 

Note  1. — The  Ablative  librb,  ‘book,’  generally  takes  the  preposition  when  used  of  a 
portion  of  a work,  but  omits  it  when  used  of  an  entire  treatise : 

In  eo  libro,  in  this  book  (referring  to  a portion  of  the  work).  Cic.  Alio  libro,  in  an- 
other work.  Cic. 

Note  2. — Other  Ablatives  sometimes  occur  without  the  preposition,  especially  when 
qualified  by  omnis.,  medius,  or  universus : 

Omnibus  oppidis,  in  all  the  towns.  Caes. 

Note  poetry  the  Locative  Ablative  is  often  used  without  the  preposition : 

Lucis  opacis,  in  shady  groves.  Verg.  Silvis  agrisque,  in  the  forests  and  fields.  Ov. 
Theatris,  in  the  theatres.  Hor.  Ferre  umero,  to  bear  upon  the  shoulder.  Verg. 

8.  Ablative  for  the  Locative. — Instead  of  the  Locative  in  names  of 
towns  the  Ablative  is  used,  with  or  without  a preposition — 

1)  When  the  proper  name  is  qualified  by  an  adjective  or  adjective  pronoun  : 

In  ipsa  Alexandria,^  i?i  Alexandria  itself.  Cic.  Longa  Alba,  at  Alba 

Longa.  V erg. 

2)  Sometimes  when  not  thus  modified : 

In  monte  Albano  Lavinioque,  on  the  Alban  mount  and  at  Lavinium.  Liv. 
In  Alexandrla,2  at  Alexandria.  Liv. 

Note. — The  following  special  constructions  deserve  notice: 

In  oppido  Citio,3  in  the  town  Citium.  Nep.  Albae,^  in  urbe  opportuna,  at  Alba,  a 
convenient  city.  Cic. 

1 In  the  singular  animl  is  generally  used,  a Locative  probably  both  in  form  and  in 
signification ; see  p.  211,  foot-note  4. 

2 At  Alexandria  would  regularly  be  expressed  by  the  Locative,  Alexandriae. 

3 Here  Citib  is  in  apposition  with  oppidb,  the  usual  construction  in  such  cases,  though 
a Genitive  limiting  oppidb  occurs:  In  oppido  Antiochiae,  in  the  city  of  Antioch.  Cic. 

^ A Locative  may  thus  be  followed  by  in  urbe,  or  in  oppidb,  modified  by  an  adjec- 
tive; but  see  363,  4.  2).  The  preposition  in  is  sometimes  omitted. 


ABLATIVE. 


329 


X 486.  Like  Names  of  Towns  are  used — 

^ \ 1.  Many  Names  of  Islands: 

Lesbl  vixit,  he  lived  in  Lesbos.  Nep.  Conon  Cypri  vixit,  Conon  lived  in 
Cypriis.  Nep. 

VS2.  The  Locatives  domi,  ruri,  militiae,  and  belli:  ‘ 

DomI  mllitiaeque,  at  home  and  in  the  field.  Cic.  Rtirl  agere  vitam,  to 
spend  life  in  the  country.  Liv. 

Note. — A few  other  Locatives  also  occur : 

Romae  Numidiaeque,  at  Rome  and  in  Numidia.  Sail.  Domum  Chersonesi  hahuit, 
he  had  a house  in  the  Chersonesus.  Nep.  Truncum  reliquit  arenae, 1 he  left  the  body 
in  the  sand.  Yerg. 

427.  Summary. — The  Names  of  Places  not  towns  are  gen- 
erally put — 

I.  In  the  Accusative  with  ad  or  in,  to  denote  the  place  to  which  : 

In  Asiam  redit,  he  returns  to  (into)  Asia.  Nep. 

II.  In  the  Ablative  with  ab,  de,  or  ex,  to  denote  the  place  from  which  : 
Ah  urhe  proficiscitur,  he  sets  out  from  the  city.  Caes. 

III.  In  the  Locative  Ablative  with  in,  to  denote  the  place  at  or  in  which  : 
Hannibal  in  Italia  fait,  Hannibal  was  in  Italy.  Nep. 

Note.— For  qualifications  and  exceptions.,  see  380,  3 and  4;  413,  2;  435, 1 and  2. 


428.  Summary. — The  Names  of  Towns  are  put^ — 

I.  In  the  Accusative.,  to  denote  the  place  to  which  : 

Nuntius  Eomam  redit,  the  messenger  returns  to  Rome.  Liv. 

II.  In  the  Ablative.,  to  denote  the  place  from  which  : 

Fugit  Corintho,  he  fled  from  Corinth.  Cic. 

III.  In  the  Locative.,  or  in  the  Locative  Ablative^  to  denote  the  place  at 

or  IN  WHICH : 

Corinthi  pueros  docebat,  he  taught  boys  at  Corinth.  Cic.  Gadibus  vixit, 
he  lived  at  Cades.  Cic. 

Note.— For  qualifications  and  exceptions.,  see  380, 1 ; 413,  3;  435,  3. 

I RULE  XXXI,— Time. 

429.  The  Time  of  an  Action  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative : 

ktogesimo  anno  est  mortuus,  he  died  in  his  eightieth  year.  Cic.  Vere 
convenere,  they  assembled  in  the  spring.  Liv.  Natali  die  suo,  on  his  birth- 


' 80  also  terrae  and  viciniae. 

2 This,  the  original  construction  for  all  names  of  places,  has  been  retained  unchanged 
only  in  the  names  of  towns  and  in  a few  other  words.  Most  names  of  places  have  as- 
sumed a preposition  with  the  Accusative  and  Ablative.,  and  have  substituted  the  Loca- 
tive Ablative  with  2^. preposition  in  place  of  the  Locative;  see  411,  III. 

3 That  is,  the  Locatim  is  used  if  any  such  form  exists;  if  not,  the  Locative  Ablative 
eupplies  its  place. 


230 


ABLATIVE. 


day.  Nep.  oX  OiQ^i^iQ^mivinter  and  summer.  Cie.  Solis  occasu, 

sunset.  Caes.  Adventu  Caesaris,  on  the  arrival  of  Caesar.  Caes.  LudTs, 
at  the  time  of  the  games.  Cic.  Vix  decern  annis,  scarcely  in  ten  years.  Nep. 
His  vTginti  annis,  within  these  twenty  years.  Cic. 

1.  Certain  relations  of  Time  are  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with  in  or  de: 

In  tali  tempore,!  at  such  a time  (i.  e.,  under  such  circumstances).  Liv.  In 

diebus  proximis  decem,!  in  the  next  ten  days.  Sail.  Do  media  nocte,  in  (lit., 
from.,  out  of)  the  middle  of  the  night.  Caes. 

2.  Certain  relations  of  Time  are  denoted  by  the  Accusative  with  ad,  in, 
inter,  intra,  sub,  etc. : 

Ad  constitutam  diem,  at  the  appointed  day.  Cic.  Ad  cenam  invitare  in 
. posterum  diem,  to  invite  to  dinner  for  the  next  day.  Cic.  Intra  viginti  dies, 
^ ivithin  twenty  days.  Plant.  Inter  tot  annos,  within  so  many  years.  Cic. 
Sub  noctem,  toivard  night.  Caes. 

430.  The  Interval  between  two  events  may  be  denoted  by 
the  Accusative  or  Ablative  v/ith  ante  or  post  : ^ 

Aliquot  post  menses  3 occisus  est,  he  was  put  to  death  some  months  after. 
Cic.  Post  dies  paucos  venit,  he  came  after  a few  days.  Liv.  Paucis  ante 
diebus, 3 a few  days  lefore.  Cic.  Homerus  annis  multis  fuit  ante  Eomulum, 
Homer  lived  many  years  before  Romulus.  Cic.  Faucis  diebus  post  ejus  mor- 
tem, a few  days  after  his  death.  Cic.  Annis  quingentis  post,At^e  hundred 
years  after.  Cic.  Quartum  post  annum  quam  redierat,  four  years  after  he 
had  returned.  Nep.  Nono  anno  postquam,  nine  years  after.  Nep.  Sexto 
ann5  quam  erat  expulsus,  six  years  after  he  had  been  banished.  Nep. 

Note  1. — In  these  examples  observe— 

1)  That  the  numeral  may  be  either  cardinal,  as  in  the  sixth  example,  or  ordinal,  as  in 
the  last  three. 4 

2)  That  with  the  Accusative  ante  and  post  either  precede  the  numeral  and  the  noun, 
or  stand  between  them ; but  that  with  the  Ablative  they  either  follow  both,  or  stand 
between  them.^ 

8)  That  quam  may  follow  ante  and  post.,  as  in  the  seventh  example;  may  be  united 
with  them,  as  in  the  eighth,  or  may  be  used  for  postquam.,  as  in  the  ninth. 

Note  2.— The  Ablative  of  the  Relative  may  be  used  for  postquam: 

Quatriduo,  quo  occisus  est,  four  days  after  he  was  killed.  Cic. 

! The  Ablative  with  in  is  used  to  denote  (1)  the  circumstances  of  the  time,  and  (2) 
the  time  in  or  toitkin  which.  In  the  second  sense  it  is  used  especially  after  numeral 
adverbs  and  in  designating  the  periods  of  life  : bis  in  die.,  ‘ twice  in  the  day  ’ ; in  pueri- 
tia^ ‘ in  boyhood,’  etc. 

2 In  two  instances  the  Ablative  with  abhinc  is  used  like  the  Ablative  with  ante: 
Abhinc  triginta  diebus,  thirty  days  before.  Cic. 

3 The  Accusative  after  ante  and  post  depends  upon  the  preposition,  but  the  Ablative 
is  explained  as  the  measure  of  difference  (423). 

4 Thus,  ‘five  years  after’  = quinque  annis  post.,  or  qulntb  anno  post;  ov  post  quin- 
que audios.,  or  post  qulntu/ni  armum;  or  with  post  between  the  numeral  and  the  noun, 
quinque  post  annis.,  etc. 

5 Any  other  arrangement  is  rare. 


ablative. 


231 


Note  8. — The  time  since  an  event  may  be  denoted  by  the  Accusative  with  abhinc  oi 
ante,  or  by  the  Ablative  with  ante : ^ 

Abhinc  annos  trecentos  fuit,  he  lived  three  hundred  years  ago.  Cic.  Faucis  ante 
diebus  erupit  ex  urbe,  he  broke  out  of  the  city  a few  days  ago.  Cic. 


K' 


RULE  XXXII»— Ablative  Absolute.^ 

431.  A noun  and  a participle  may  be  put  in  the  Abla- 
tive to  add  to  the  predicate  an  attendant  circumstance : 

Servio  regnante  viguerunt,  they  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Servius  (Ser- 
vius reigning).®  Cic.  Regibus  exactis,  consules  creati  sunt,  after  the  ban- 
ishment of  the  Jcings^^  consuls  were  appointed.  Liv.  Equitatu  praemisso, 
subsequebatur,  having  sent  forward  his  cavalry.^  he  followed.  Caes.  Reg- 
num haud  satis  prosperum  neglecta  religione,  a reign  not  sufficiently  pros- 
• perous  because  religion  was  neglected.  Liv.  Perditis  rebus  omnibus  tamen 
virtus  se  sustentare  potest,  though  all  things  are  lost.^  still  virtue  is  able  to 
mstain  itself  Cic.  Obsidibus  imperatis,  hos  Aeduis  tradit,®  having  de- 
manded hostages^  he  delivers  them  to  the  Aedui.  Caes. 

The  Ablative  Absolute,  much  more  common  than  the  English  Nomina- 
^live  Absolute,  generally  expresses  the  time.^  cause^  or  some  attendant  circum- 
stance of  an  action. 

2.  This  Ablative  is  generally  best  rendered— (1)  by  a noun  with  a prepo- 
^sition — in,  during.^  after,  by,  ivith,  through,  etc. ; (2)  by  an  active  participle 
with  its  object ; or  (3)  by  a clause  with  when,  while,  because,  if,  though,  etc. ; ® 
see  examples  above. 

A connective  sometimes  accompanies  the  Ablative ; 

Nisi  munitis  castris,  unless  the  camp  should  be  fortified.  Caes. 

A noun  and  an  adjective,  or  even  two  nouns,  may  be  in  the  Ablative 
Absolute : ^ 


1 The  Accusative  is  explained  as  duration  of  time  (379),  the  Ablative  as  measure 
of  difference  (433). 

2 This  Ablative  is  called  absolute,  because  it  is  not  directly  dependent  for  its  con- 
struction upon  any  other  word  in  the  sentence.  Originally  Locative,  it  was  first  used  to 
denote  situation  or  time,  a meaning  from  which  its  later  uses  may  be  readily  derived. 
Thus,  while  the  force  of  a Locative  Ablative  is  apparent  in  Servio  regnante  and  in  regi- 
bus exdctls,  it  is  recognized  without  difficulty  in  neglecta  religione  as  indicating  the 
situation  or  state  of  things  in  which  the  reign  was  not  prosperous.  In  some  instances, 
however,  the  Ablative  Absolute  may  be  instrumental  or  causal. 

3 Or,  while  Servius  was  reigning  or  was  king. 

^ Or,  after  the  kings  were  banished. 

5 In  this  example  obsidibus  and  hbs  refer  to  the  same  persons.  This  is  unusual,  as 
in  this  construction  the  Ablative  generally  refers  to  some  person  or  thing  not  otherwise 
mentioned  in  the  clause  to  which  it  belongs. 

® The  first  method  of  translation  comes  nearer  the  original  Latin  conception,  but  the 
other  methods  generally  accord  better  with  the  English  idiom. 

’’  This  construction  is  peculiar  to  the  Latin.  In  the  corresponding  constructions  in 
Sanskrit,  Greek,  and  English,  the  present  participle  of  the  verb  Ho  be''  is  used. 


?32 


CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS, 


Sereno  caelo,  lohen  the  shy  is  clear.  Sen.  Caninio  consule,  in  the  consut 
ship  of  Caninius.  Cic. 

Note  1. — An  infinitive  or  clause  may  be  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  with  a neutei 
participle  or  adjective : 

Audito  Darium  movisse,  pergit,  having  heard  that  Darius  had  withdrawn  {thdii 
Darius  had,  etc.,  having  been  heard),  he  advanced.  Curt.  Multi,  incerto  quid  vitarent, 
interierunt,  many.,  uncertain  what  they  should  avoid  (what  they,  etc.,  being  uncertain), 
perished.  Liv. 

Note  participle  or  adjective  may  stand  alone  in  the  Ablative  Absolute : 

Multum  certato,  pervicit,  he  conquered  after  a hard  struggle.'^  Tac. 

Note  3. — Quisque  or  ipse  in  the  Nominative  may  accompany  the  Ablative  Absolute : 

Multis  sibi  quisque  petentibus,  while  many  sought.,  each  for  himself.  Sail.  Causa 
ipse  pro  se  dicta  damnatur,  hoA)ing  himself  advocated  his  own  cause.,  he  is  con- 
demned. Liv. 

Note  4.— For  the  use  of  ahsente  and  praesente  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  with  a 
plural  noun  or  pronoun,  see  438,  6,  note. 

SECTION  VIII. 

CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 

/ RULE  XXXIII.— Cases  with  Prepositions. 

^ 432.  The  Accusative  and  Ablative  may  be  used  with 
prepositions : ’ 

Ad  amicum  scripsi,  I have  written  to  a friend.  Cic.  In  curiam,  into  the 
\enate-house,  Liv.  In  Italia,  in  Italy,  Nep.  Pro  castris,  before  the  camp. 

433.  The  Accusative  is  used  with — 

Ad,  adversus  (adversum),  ante,  apud,  circa,  circum,  circiter,  cis,  citra, 
contra,  erga,  extra,  infra,  inter,  intra,  juxta,  ob,  penes,  per,  pone,  post, 
praeter,  prope,  propter,  secundum,  supra,  trans,  ultra,  versus: 

Ad  urbem,  to  the  city.  Cic.  Adversus  deos,  toward  the  gods.  Cic.  Ante 
lucem,  before  light.  Cic.  Apud  concilium,  in  the  presence  of  the  council.  Cic. 
Circa  forum,  around  the  forum.  Cic.  Citra  flumen,  on  this  side  of  the  river. 
Cic.  Contra  naturam,  contrary  to  nature.  Cic.  Intra  muros,  within  the 
walls.  Cic.  Post  castra,  behind  the  camp.  Caes.  Secundum  naturam,  ac- 
cording to  nature.  Cic.  Trans  Alpes,  across  the  Alps.  Cic. 

Note  1. — Exadversus  (um)  also  occurs  with  the  Accusative : 

emnlocum.,  over  against  that  place.  Cic.  See  also  437. 

Note  2.—  Versus  {um)  and  usque.,  as  adverbs,  often  accompany  prepositions,  es- 
pecially ad  and  in : 

Ad  oceanum  versus,  toward  the  ocean.  Caes.  Ad  meridiem  versus,  toward  the 
muth.  Liv.  Usque  ad  castra  hostium,  even  to  the  camp  of  the  enemy.  Caes. 


1 Literally,  it  having  been  much  contested.  The  participle  is  used  impersonally. 

2 On  the  general  subject  of  Prepositions  and  their  Use,  see  Koby,  II.,  pp.  861-456? 
Draeger,  I.,  pp.  574-665;  Kuhner  II.,  pi>.  355-4321 


CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 


233 


Note  3.— /'or  propius.,  proxime.,  propior.,  and  proximus.,  with  the  Accusative,  see 
p7'ope^  note  2,  under  I.,  below. 

Note  4.— For  compounds  of  prepositions.,  see  37^  and  376. 

I.  The  following  uses  of  prepositions  with  the  Accusative  deserve  notice : 
Ad,  TO,  the  opposite  of  aJ,  from — (1)  to,  toward,  till  ; (2)  near,  at,  on: 
ad  me.,  ‘ to  me,’  ‘ near  me,’  ^ at  my  house  ’ ; ad  urhem,  ‘ to  the  city,’  ‘ near  the 
city  ’ ; ad  dextram^  ‘ on  the  right  ’ ; ad  multam  noctem.,  ‘ till  late  in  the  night  ’ ; 
ad  lucem.,  ‘till  daybreak’ ; ad  hoc.,  ‘besides  this,’  ‘moreover’  ; ad  'cerhum., 
‘word  for  word’ ; ad  hunc  modum.,  ‘ after  this  manner’ ; ad  ultimum,  ‘ at 
last’ ; ad  unum  omnes,  ‘ all  to  a man,’  ‘ all  without  exception.’ 

Apud,  NEAR,  AT,  BEFORE,  IN  THE  PRESENCE  OF : apud  oppidum,  ‘ near  or 
before  the  town  ’ ; apud  me,  ‘ at  my  house  ’ ; sum  apud  me,  ‘ I am  at  home  ’ 
or  ‘ I am  in  my  right  mind  ’ ; apud  Platonem,  ‘ in  the  works  of  Plato.’ 

Ante,  BEFORE,  IN  FRONT  OF,  ABOVE,  IN  PREFERENCE  TO  *.  ante  SUOS  ailTlOS, 

‘ before  his  time,’  ‘ too  early  ’ ; ante  tempus,  ‘ before  the  proper  time  ’ ; ante 
annum,  ‘ a year  before  ’ ; ante  urhem  conditam,  ‘ before  the  founding  of  the 
city’  ; ante  alios  pulcherrimus  omnes,  ‘the  most  beautiful  above  all  others.’ 
Circum,  circa,  circiter ,2  round,  around,  about  : circum  forum, 
‘ around  the  forum  ’ ; circa  se,  ‘ around  or  with  himself’  ; circa  eandem  horam, 
‘about  the  same  hour’ ; circiter  meridiem,  ‘about  midday.’ 

Note. — Circum,  the  oldest  of  these  forms,  is  used  only  of  place;  circa,  both  of 
place  and  of  time  ; circiter,  rare  as  a preposition,  chiefly  of  time.  They  are  all  freely 
used  as  adverbs : circum  convenire,  ‘ to  gather  around ' ; circa  esse,  ‘ to  be  around  ’ ; 
circiter  pars  quarta,  ‘ about  the  fourth  part.’ 

Cis,  citra,3  on  this  side — cis  opposed  to  trdns,  across,  on  the  other 
SIDE  ; citrd  opposed  to  ultra,  beyond  : cis  flumen,  ‘ on  this  side  of  the  stream  ’ ; 
cis  paucos  dies,  ‘ within  a few  days  ’ ; citrd  veritatem,  ‘ short  of  tl^e  truth  ’ ; 
citrd  auctoritatem,  ‘ without  authority.’ 

Contra, 3 opposite  to,  over  against,  against,  contrary  to  : contrd  eds 
regionis,  ‘ opposite  to  those  regions’ ; contrd  populum,  ‘ against  the  people  ’ ; 
contrd  ndturam,  ‘ contrary  to  nature.’ 

Erga,'^  TOWARD,  to,  against  : ergd  parentes,  ‘ toward  parents  ’ ; odium 
ergd  Romdnos,  ‘ hatred  to  the  Eomans  ’ ; ergd  regem,  ‘ against  the  king.’ 
Extra,  OUTSIDE,  without,  free  from,  except  : extrd  portam,  ‘ outside 
the  gate’;  extrd  culpam,  ‘without  fault,’  ‘free  from  fault’;  extrd  ducem, 
‘ except  the  leader,’  ‘ besides  the  leader.’ 

infra,^  below,  under,  beneath,  less  than,  after,  later  than,  opposed 
to  suprd,  ABOVE : Infrd  lunam,  ‘ beneath  the  moon  ’ ; Infrd  me,  ‘ below  me  ’ ; 
Infrd  tres  pedes,  ‘ less  than  three  feet’ ; Infrd  Lycurgum,  ‘ after  Lj'Curgus.’ 

1 For  the  form  and  meaning  of  prepositions  in  composition,  see  344,  5. 

2 These  three  forms  are  all  derived  from  circus,  ‘a  circle’  (i.  e.,  from  its  stem);  see 
304;  307,  note  1. 

^ These  are  often  adverbs. 

4 According  to  Yanicek,  from  e and  the  root  regvn  rego\  ‘in  the  direction  of’  (lit., 
from  the  direction  0/).  In  Tacitus,  sometimes  in  relation  to  : ergd  domum  suam 
In  relation  to  his  own  household.’ 

• Infra  = Inf  era  pa/rte,  ‘ in  the  lower  part’ 


334 


CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 


Inter, 1 between,  among,  in  the  midst  of  : inter  urlem  et  Tiberim^  ‘ be- 
tween the  city  and  the  Tiber  ’ ; inter  bonoSy  ‘ among  the  good  ’ ; inter  manus^ 
‘ in  the  hands,’  ‘ within  reach,’  ‘ tangible  ’ ; inter  noSy  ‘ between  us,’  ‘ in  con- 
fidence ’ ; inter  se  amare^  ‘ to  love  one  another  ’ ; mter  se  differre^  ‘ to  diJffer 
from  one  another’ ; inter  paucos y inter  paucuy  ‘ especially,’  ‘preeminently’ ; 
inter  paucos  disertusy  ‘ preeminently  eloquent’ ; inter  purpuram  atque  aurumy 
‘ in  the  midst  of  purple  and  gold.’ 

Intra,  within,  less  than,  below,  opposed  to  extrdy  on  the  outside, 
WITHOUT : intrd  castray  ‘ within  the  camp  ’ ; intrd  mCy  ‘ within  me  ’ ; 2 intrd 
sly  ‘ in  his  mind  ’ or  ‘ in  their  minds  ’ ; ^ intrd  centumy  ‘ less  than  one  hundred  ’ 
intrd  modumy  ‘ within  the  limit  ’ ; mtrd  fdmaniy  ‘ below  his  reputation.’ 

Ob,  BEFORE,  IN  VIEW  OF,  IN  REGARD  TO,  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  I ob  OCUloSy  ‘ before 

one’s  eyes  ’ ; ob  stultitiam  tuamy  ‘ in  view  of  your  folly,’  or  ‘ in  regard  to  your 
folly  ’ ; ob  hanc  remy  ‘ in  view  of  this  thing,’  ‘ for  this  reason,’  ‘ on  this  ac- 
count ’ ; quam  ob  remy  ‘ in  view  of  which  thing,’  ‘ wherefore.’ 

Per  ,4  THROUGH,  BY  THE  AID  OF : per  forumy  ‘ through  the  forum  ’ ; per  alibSy 
‘ through  others,’  ‘ by  the  aid  of  others  ’ ; per  sly  ‘ by  his  own  efforts,’  also 
‘ in  himself,’  ‘ in  itself’  ; per  metuniy  ‘ through  fear’ ; per  aeidtemy  ‘ in  conse- 
quence of  age  ’ ; per  luduniy  ‘ sportively  ’ ; per  vimy  ‘ violently  ’ ; per  ml  licety 
‘it  is  allowable  as  far  as  I am  concerned’  (i.  e.,  I make  no  opposition). 

Post,  BEHIND,  AFTER,  SINCE : post  moutemy  ‘ behind  the  mountain  ’ ; post 
dldicdtibnem  templly  ‘ after  the  dedication  of  the  temple  ’ ; post  hominum 
memoriam y ‘ since  the  memory  of  man.’ 

Praeter, 5 before,  along,  past,  by,  beyond,  besides,  except,  contrary 
to:  praeter  oculbSy  ‘before  their  \ pi^aeter  oramy  ‘along  the  coast’; 

praeter  clterbSy  ‘ beyond  others,’  ‘ more  than  others  ’ ; praeter  haec  = praeter-edy 
‘ besides  these  things,’  ‘ moreover’ ; praeter  mly  ‘ except  me  ’ ; praeter  spem.y 
‘ contrary  to  expectation.’ 

Prope,  propter,  near,  near  by.  Prope,  near;  propter 
tery  a strengthened  form  of  propey^  very  near,  alongside  of,  also  in  view  of, 
ON  ACCOUNT  OF  : prope  liostlSy  ‘ near  the  enemy  ’ ; prope  metumy  ‘ near  to  fear,’ 
‘ almost  fearful  ’ ; propter  marey  ‘ near  the  sea  ’ ; propter  timbremy  ‘ on  account 
of  fear’ ; propter  sly  ‘ on  his  own  account,’  ‘ on  their  own  account.’ 

Note  l.—Prope^  as  an  adverb,  is  sometimes  combined  with  ab,  or  ad:  prope 
d Sicilidy  ‘ near  Sicily,’  ‘ not  far  fi’om  Sicily’ ; prope  ad  portdSy  ‘ near  to  the  gates.’ 

Note  2. — Like  propCy  the  derivatives  propius  and  prbximly  and  sometimes  even 
propior  and  prbximuSy  admit  the  Accusative  : ’’’ 

Propius  periculum,  nearer  to  danger.  Liv.  Proxime  deos,  rery  near  to  the  gods. 


1 Formed  from  in  by  the  ending  ter^  like  prae-ter  from  prae  (434, 1.),  prop-te't 
xom  prope  (433, 1.),  and  suh-ter  from  sub  (435, 1.). 

2 Often  equivalent  to  in  meb  animby  ‘ in  my  mind.’ 

2 Sometimes,  in  his  country y or  in  their  country. 

^ In  origin  kindred  to  the  Greek  Trapoi. 

s Formed  ivomprae  (434, 1.),  like  in-ter  from  in\  see  inter y with  foot-note. 

® See  inter,  with  foot-note. 

^ Perhaps  by  a construction  according  to  sense,  following  the  analogy  of  propCy  though 
In  most  cases  a preposition  may  readily  be  supplied, 


f' 


S '.  I 


rxT-- 


CASES  ~wrm  pRE!p‘6s'iTtbNS''. 


HS 


235 


Cic.  Propior  montem,  nearer  to  the  mountain.  Sail.  Proximus  mare,  nearest  to  the 
%ea.  Caes. 

Secundum, 1 following,  next  after,  next  behind,  alongside  of,  con- 
forming TO,  ACCORDING  TO,  IN  FAVOR  OF  I secuiidum  dram,^  ‘ behind  the  altar’ ; 
secundum  deds^  ‘ next  after  the  gods  ’ ; secundum  ludds^  * after  the  games  ’ ; 
secundum  flumen,,  ‘along  the  river’ ; secundum  naturam,,  ‘ according  to  na- 
ture,’ ‘ following  nature  ’ ; secundum  causam  nostram,,  ‘ in  favor  of  our  cause.’  2 

Supra, 3 ON  THE  top,  above,  before,  too  high  for  ; opposed  to  Infra,, 
BELOW ; suj^rd  lunam,,  ‘ above  the  moon  ’ ; suyrd  hanc  memoriam,,  ‘ before 
our  time  ’ ; ^ sujprd  hominem,,  ‘ too  high  for  a man.’ 

Trans,  across,  on  the  other  side,  opposed  to  m,  on  this  side  : trdns 
Ehenum,,  ‘ across  the  Ehine  ’ ; trdns  Alpes,,  ‘ on  the  other  side  of  the  Alps.’ 

Ultra,  BEYOND,  across,  on  the  other  side,  more  than,  longer  than, 
AFTER,  opposed  to  citrd,,  on  this  side  : ultrd  eum  locum,,  ‘ beyond  that  place  ’ ; 
ultrd  eum,,  ‘ beyond  him’ ; ultrd  pig  mis,  ' more  than  a pledge  ’ ; ultra  fldem, 
‘ beyond  belief,’  ‘ incredible  ’ ; ultrd  pueriles  annos,  ‘ after  {beyond)  the  years 
of  boyhood.’ 

434.  The  Ablative  is  used  with — 

A or  ab  (abs),  absque,  coram,  cum,  de, 

e or  ex,  prae,  pro,  sine,  tenus. 

Ab  urbe,  from  the  city.  Caes.  Coram  conventu,  in  the  presence  of  the 
assembly,  Nep.  Cum  Antiocho,  with  Antiochus,  Cic.  De  foro,  from  the 
■forum,  Cic.  Ex  Asia,  out  of  Asia.  Nep.  Sine  corde,  luithout  a heart,  Cic. 

Note  i. — Many  verbs  compounded  with  a&,  de,,  or  super  admit  the  Ablative 
dependent  upon  the  preposition,  but  the  preposition  is  often  repeated, ^ or  some  other 
preposition  of  kindred  meaning  is  used  : 

Abire  magistratu,  to  retire  from  office.  Tac.  Pugna,  excedunt,  they  retire  from  the 
battle.  Caes.  De  vita  decedere,  to  depart  from  life.  Cic.  Decedere  ex  Asia,  to  depart 
out  of  Asia.  Cic. 

Note  2,— A and  e are  used  only  before  consonants,  ab  and  ex  before  either  vowels  or 
consonants.  Abs  is  antiquated,  except  before  te. 

Note  3.— For  cum  appended  to  the  Ablative  of  a personal  pronoun  or  of  a relative, 
see  184,  6,  and  187,  2. 

Note  4. — Tenus  follows  its  case.  In  its  origin  it  is  the  Accusative  of  a noun,®  and 
as  such  it  often  takes  the  Genitive  : 

Collo  tenus,  up  to  the  neck.  Ov.  Lumborum  tenus,  as  far  as  the  loins.  Cic. 


1 Properly  the  neuter  of  secundus,,  ‘ following,’  ‘ second  ’ ; but  secundus  is  a gerund- 
ive from  sequor.,  formed  like  dlcundus  from  dico  (339).  For  the  change  of  qu  to  c 
before  u in  sec-undus  for  sequ-undus.,  see  36,  foot-note. 

^ Like  the  adjective  secundus  in  rentus  secundus,  ‘ a favoring  wind  ’ — one  that.follow'S 
ns  on  our  course;  flumine  secundo,  ‘with  a favoring  current’  (i.  e.,  down  the  stream). 

3 Supra  = superd  parte,  ‘ on  the  top.’ 

^ Literally,  before  this  memory.  For  7i!c  meaning  my  or  our,  see  450,  4,  note  1. 

® Though  in  such  cases  the  first  element  of  the  compound  is  not  strictly  a preposi- 
tion, but  an  adverb  (344,  with  foot-note).  Thus,  in  de  mid  decedere,  de  in  the  verb 
retains  its  adverbial  force,  so  that,  strictly  speaking,  the  preposition  is  used  only  once. 

® From  the  root  tan,  ten,  seen  in  ten-do,  ten-eo,  and  in  the  Greek  retv-w. 


836 


CASES  WITH  FREP08IT102\S. 


Note  5.— For  the  Ablative  with  or  without  de^  as  used  with  facio^  and  sum^  see 
415,  III.,  note. 

I.  The  following  uses  of  prepositions  with  the  Ablative  deserve  notice : 
A,  afoji  abs,  from,  by,  in,  on,  on  thf  side  of.  1.  Of  Place  ; from,  on, 
ON  THE  SIDE  OF  \ d GalUd^  ‘ from  Gaul  ’ ; ah  ortu^  ‘ from  the  east  ’ ; d fronte^ 

‘ in  front’  (lit.,  from  the  front) ; d tergo  ^ ‘ in  the  rear’ ; ah  Sequanis^  ‘ on  the 
side  toward  the  Sequani.’  2.  Of  Time  / from,  after  : ah  hard  tertid^  ‘ from 
the  third  hour  ’ ; d puero^  ‘ from  boyhood  ’ ; ah  cohortdtione^  ‘ after  exhort- 
ing.’ 3.  In  other  relations  ; from,  by,  in,  against:  d poend  llher^  ‘free  from 
punishment  ’ ; missus  ah  Syrdcusls^  ‘ sent  by  the  Syracusans  ’ ; ah  equitdtu 
firmus^  ‘ strong  in  (lit.,/rom)  cavalry’ ; ah  animo  aeger  ^ ‘diseased  in  mind  ’ ; 
ah  els  defendere^  ‘ to  defend  against  {from)  them  ’ ; esse  ah  aliquo^  ‘ to  be  on 
one’s  side  ’ ; d nohls^  ‘ in  our  interest  ’ ; servus  dpedihus,  ‘ a footman.’ 
^OTE.—Ahsque,  rare  in  classical  prose,  is  found  chiefly  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 

Cum, 2 with,  in  most  of  its  English  meanings : cum  patre  hahitdre,  ‘ to 
live  with  one’s  father  ’ ; Caesar  cum  quinque  legionibus^  ‘ Caesar  with  five 
legions  ’ ; consul  cum  summo  imperio^  ‘ the  consul  with  supreme  command  ’ ; 
servus  cum  telo^  ‘ a slave  with  a weapon,’  ‘ an  armed  slave  ’ ; cum  prlmd  luce^ 

‘ with  the  early  dawn,*  ‘ at  the  early  dawn  ’ ; consentire  cum  aliquo^  ‘ to  agree 
with  any  one  ’ ; cum  Caesare  agere^  ‘ to  treat  with  Caesar  ’ ; cum  aliquo  dlmi- 
cdre^  ‘ to  contend  with  any  one  ’ ; multls  cum  lacrimis^  ‘ with  many  tears  ’ ; 
cum  virtute^  ‘ virtuously  ’ ; cum  eo  ut^  or  cum  eo  quod^  ‘ with  this  condition 
that,’  ‘ on  condition  that.’  See  also  419,  III. 

De,  DOWN  FROM,  FROM,  OF.  1.  Of  PlaCC ; DOWN  FROM,  FROM!  d£  Caclo^ 
‘ down  from  heaven  ’ ; de  foro^  ‘ from  the  forum  ’ ; de  mdjorihus  audlre^  ‘ to 
hear  from  one’s  elders.’  2.  Of  Time ; from,  out  of,  during,  in,  at,  after; 
de  prandio^  ‘ from  breakfast  ’ ; de  die^  ‘ by  day,’  ‘ in  the  course  of  the  day  ’ ; de 
tertid  vigilid^  ‘ during  the  third  watch’ ; de  medid  nocte^  ‘ at  about  midnight.’ 
3.  In  other  relations;  from,  of,  for,  on,  concerning,  according  to:  de 
summo  genere^  ‘of  the  highest  rank’  \ factum  de  marmore  signum^  ‘a  bust 
made  of  marble’  ; homh  de  plehe^  ‘a  man  of  plebeian  rank,’  ‘a plebeian’; 
triumphus  de  Gallid^  ‘ a triumph  over  {concerning)  Gaul  ’ ; gravl  de  causd^ 
‘ for  a grave  reason  ’ ; de  more  vetusto^  ‘ according  to  ancient  custom  ’ ; d~e  in- 
dustrid^  ‘ on  purpose’ ; de  integro^  ‘ anew.’  See  also  415,  III.,  note  2. 

E,  ex, 3 OUT  OF,  FROM.  1.  Of  Place ; out  of,  from,  in,  on:  ex  urhe^  ‘ from 
the  city,’  ‘ out  of  the  city  ’ ; ex  equo  pugndre , ‘ to  fight  on  horseback  ’ ; ex  vin- 
culis^ ‘in  chains’  (lit.,  out  of  or  from  chains)  \ ex  itinere^  'on  the  march.’ 
2.  Of  Time  ; from,  directly  after,  since  : ex  eo  tempore^  ‘ from  that  time  ’ ; 
ex  tempore  dlcere^  ‘ to  speak  extemporaneously  ’ ; diem  ex  die^  ‘ from  day  to 
day.’  3.  In  other  relations ; from,  out  of,  of,  according  to,  on  account  of, 
through:  ex  vulnerihus  perlre^  ‘to  perish  of  {because  of)  wounds’;  unus  ? 
fllils^  ‘ one  of  the  sons  ’ ; ex  commutdtidne^  ‘ on  account  of  the  change  ’ ; ex 
consuetudine^  ‘ according  to  custom  ’ ; e vestigio^  ‘ on  the  spot  ’ ; ex  parte 
mdgnd^  ‘ in  great  part’ ; ex  improviso^  ‘ unexpectedly.’ 


^ Greek  dird. 


Compare  Greek  ^vx/,  crvv^  with.  3 Compare  Greek  ovi  (d 


OASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 


m 


Prae,  before,  in  comparison  with,  in  consequence  of,  because  of  : ^ 
prae  manu  esse^  ‘ to  be  at  hand  ’ ; prae  manu  habere^  ‘ to  have  at  hand  ’ ; prae 
seferre^  ‘ to  show,  display,  exhibit’ ; prae  nobis  bedtus^  ‘ happy  in  comparison 
with  us  ’ ; non  prae  lacrimis  i posse^  ‘ not  to  be  able  because  of  tears.’ 

Pro,  BEFORE  ; IN  BEHALF  OF,  IN  DEFENCE  OF,  FOR  ; INSTEAD  OF,  AS  ; IN 
RETURN  FOR,  FOR ; ACCORDING  TO,  IN  PROPORTION  TO  I pro  castvls^  ‘ before  the 
camp  ’ ; pro  libertate^  ‘ in  defence  of  liberty  ’ ; pro  patrid^  ‘ for  the  country  ’ ; 
pro  consule  = proconsul^  ‘ a proconsul  ’ (one  acting  for  a consul) ; pro  certo 
Jiabere^  ‘ to  regard  as  certain  ’ ; pro  eo^  quod^  ‘ for  the  reason  that,’  ‘ because  ’ ; 
pro  tud  prudenUd^  ‘ in  accordance  with  your  prudence  ’ ; pro  imperio,,  ‘ im«- 
periously  ’ ; pro  se  quisque,,  ‘ each  according  to  his  ability.’ 

435.  The  Accusative  or  Ablative  is  used  with — 

In,  sub,  subter,  super : 

In  Asiam  profQgit,  he  fled  into  Asia.  Cic.  Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Han- 
nibal was  in  Italy.  Nep.  Sub  montem,  toivard  the  mountain,  Caes.  Sub 
monte,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  I4V.  Subter  togam,  under  the  toga.  Liv. 
Subter  testudine,  under  a tortoise  or  shed.  Verg.  Super  Numidiam,  beyond 
Numidia.  Sail.  Hac  super  re  scribam,  I shall  write  on  this  subject,  Cic. 

Note  1. — In  and  sub  take  the  Accusative  after  verbs  implying  motion.,  WiQ  Ablative 
after  those  implying  rest;  see  examples. 

Note  ^.—Subter  and  super  generally  take  the  Accusative ; but  super.,  when  it  means 
concerning.,  of  on  (of  a subject  of  discourse),  takes  the  Ablative ; see  examples. 

I.  The  following  uses  of  subter.,  and  super  deserve  notice : 

In,  with  the  Accusative.,  into,  to,  toward,  till.  1.  Of  Place ; into,  to, 
TOWARD,  AGAINST,  IN  \ Ire  in  urbem.,  ‘ to  go  into  the  city  ’ ; in  Persds.,  ‘ into 
the  country  of  the  Persians  ’ ; in  dram.,  ‘ to  the  altar  ’ ; unum  in  locum  con- 
venire.,  ‘ to  meet  in  one  place  ’ (380,  with  note).  2.  Of  Time  ; into,  to,  for, 
TILL : in  noctem,  ‘ into  the  night  ’ ; in  multam  noctem,  ‘ until  late  at  night  ’ ; 
in  diem,  ‘ into  the  day,’  also  ‘ for  the  day  ’ ; in  dies,  ‘ from  day  to  day,’  ‘ daily  ’ ; 
invltdre  in  posterum  diem,  ‘ to  invite  for  the  following  day.’  3.  In  other  rela- 
tions ; INTO,  AGAINST,  TOWARD,  ON,  FOR,  AS,  IN  I dlvlsa  in  partls  tres,  ‘ divided 
into  three  parts  ’ ; in  hostem,  ‘ against  the  enemy  ’ ; in  id  certdmen,  ‘ for  this 
contest  ’ ; in  memoriam  patris,  ‘ in  memory  of  his  father  ’ ; in  spem  pdcis,  ‘ in 
the  hope  of  peace  ’ ; in  rem  esse,  ‘ to  be  useful,’  ‘ to  be  to  the  purpose.’ 

In,  with  the  Ablative,  in,  on,  at.  1.  Of  Place ; in,  at,  within,  among, 
UPON : in  urbe,  ‘ in  the  city  ’ ; in  Persls,  ‘ among  the  Persians  ’ ; sapientis- 
simus  in  septem,  ‘the  wisest  among  or  of  the  seven.’  2.  Of  Time ; in,  at, 
DURING,  IN  THE  COURSE  OF : in  tdll  tempore,  ‘ at  such  a time  ’ ; in  tempore,  ‘ in 
time.’  3.  In  other  relations  ; in,  on,  upon,  in  the  case  of  : esse  in  armls,  ‘ to 
be  in  arms  ’ ; in  summo  timbre,  ‘ in  the  greatest  fear  ’ ; in  hoc  homine,  ‘ in  the 
case  of  this  man.’ 

Sub,  ivith  the  Accusative,  under,  beneath,  toward,  up  to,  about,  direct- 

1 This  causal  meaning  is  developed  from  the  local.  The  noun  in  the  Ablative  is 
thought  of  as  an  obstacle  or  hindrance : non  prae  lacrimis  posse,  ‘ not  to  be  able  be- 
fore, in  the  presence  of,  because  of  such  a hindrance  as  tears.’ 


238 


OASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 


LY  AFTER : sub  jugum  mittere^  ‘ to  send  under  the  yoke  ’ ; sub  nostram  adem^ 

‘ toward  our  line ' ; suh  astra^  ‘ up  to  the  stars  ’ ; sub  vesperum^  toward  even- 
ing ’ ; sub  eds  l^tterds^  ‘ directly  after  that  letter  ’ ; sub  imperium  redactus^ 
'•  brought  under  one’s  sway.’ 

Sub,  with  the  Ablative^  under,  at,  at  the  foot  of,  in,  about  : sub  terrd^ 
‘ under  the  earth  ’ ; sub  pellibus^  ‘ in  tents  ’ ; i sub  brumd^  ‘ at  the  time  of  the 
winter  solstice  ’ ; sub  luce^  ‘ at  dawn  ’ ; sub  hoc  verbo^  ‘ under  this  word  ’ ; sub 
iudice^  ‘ in  the  hands  of  the  judge  ’ (i.  e.,  not  yet  decided). 

Note. — Subter^  a strengttieiied  form  2 of  suh^  meaning  under,  generally  takes  the 
Accusative^  though  it  admits  the  Ablative  in  poetry:  subter  mare^  ‘under  the  sea’; 
subter  togam^  ‘under  the  toga’;  subter  densd  testudine^  ‘under  a compact  testudo.’ 

Super,  with  the  Accusative^  over,  upon,  above  : sedens  super  arma^  ‘ sit- 
ting upon  the  arms’  ; super  Numidiam^  ‘beyond  Numidia’ ; super  sexdgintd 
mllia^  ‘ upward  of  sixty  thousand  ’ ; super  naturam^  ‘ supernatural  ’ ; super 
omnia ^ ‘ above  all.’ 

Super,  with  the  Ablative^  upon,  at,  durino,  concerning,  of,  on  : strata 
super  ostro  ^ ‘upon  purple  couches  ’ (lit  ^ the  spread  purple)  \ nocte  super 
media  ^ ‘at  midnight’;  hdc  super  re  scribere^  ‘to  write  upon  this  subject’; 
multa  super  Priamo  rogitans^  ‘ asking  many  questions  about  Priam.’ 

Note.— The  Ablative  is  rare  with  supe/r^  except  when  it  means  concerning,  about.,  on 
(of  the  subject  of  discourse).  It  is  then  the  regular  construction. 

436.  Prepositions  were  originally  adverbs  (307,  note  1),  and  many  of 
the  words  generally  classed  as  prepositions  are  often  used  as  adverbs  ^ in 
classical  authors : 

Ad  milibus  quattuor,  about  four  thousand.  Caes.  Omnia  contra  circaque, 
all  things  opposite  and  around.  Liv.  Prope  a Sicilia,  not  far  from  Sicily. 
Cic.  Juxta  positus,  placed  near  by.  Nep.  Supra,  infra  esse,  to  be  above.,  be- 
low. Cic.  Nec  citra  nec  ultra,  neither  on  this  side  nor  on  that  side,  Ov. 

437.  Conversely,  several  words  generally  classed  as  adverbs  are  some- 
times used  as  prepositions.  Such  are — 

y-  1.  With  the  Accusative,  propius.,  proxime.,  mldie.,  postridie.,  usque,  de- 
super  : 

Propius  periculum,  nearer  to  danger.  Liv.  Pridie  Idus,  the  day  before 
the  Ides.  Cic.  even  to  the  feet.  Curt. 

2.  With  the  Ablative,  intus.,  palam.,  procul.,  simul  (poetic) : 

Tali  intus  templo,  within  such  a temple.  Verg.  Palam  populo,  in  the 
presence  of  the  people.  Liv.  Procul  castris,  at  a distance  from  the  camp.  Tac. 
Simul  his,  with  these.  Hor. 

3.  With  the  Accusative  or  Ablative,  clam.,  insuper : 

Clam  patrem,  without  the  fathers  Tcnowledge.  Plaut.  Clam  vobis,  without 
your  Tcnowledge.  Caes. 

1 That  is,  in  camp  (lit.,  under  sJcins). 

.2  Formed  from  sub,  like  in-te/r  from  in;  see  433, 1.,  inter,  foot-note. 

8 They  are,  in  fact,  sometimes  adverbs  and  sometimes  prepositions. 


AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


239 


CHAPTEE  III. 


SYNTAX  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


RULB  XXXIV. — Agreement  of  Adjectives. 

438.  An  adjective  agrees  with  its  noun  in  gendee, 
UMBEE,  and  CASE : 

Fortuna  caeca  est,  fortune  is  blind.  Cic.  Y erae  amicitiae,  true  friend- 
ships. Cic.  Magister  optimus,  the  best  teacher.  Cic.  Qua  in  re  privatas 
injurias  ultus  est,  in  which  thing  he  avenged  private  wrongs.  Caes.  Sol 
oriens  diem  conficit,  the  sun  rising  makes  the  day.  Cic. 


1.  Adjective  Pronouns  and  Participles  are  Adjectives  in  construction,  an 
accordingly  conform  to  this  rule,  as  in  qua  in  re.,  sol  oriens. 

2.  When  an  adjective  unites  with  the  verb  (generally  sum)  to  form  the 
predicate.,  as  in  caeca  est.,  ‘ is  blind,’  it  is  called  a Peedicate  Adjective  (360, 
note  1);  but  when  it  simply  qualifies  a noun,  as  in  verae  amicitiae.,  ‘true 
friendships,’  it  is  called  an  Atteibutive  Adjective. 

3.  Ageeement  with  Clause,  etc. — An  adjective  may  agree  with  any  word 
or  words  used  substantively,  as  2^ pronoun.,  clause.,  infinitive.,  etc. : 

Quis  clarior,  who  is  more  illustrious  f Cic.  Certum  est  liberos  amari,  it 
is  certain  that  children  are  loved.  Quint.  See  42,  note. 

Note. — An  adjective  agreeing  with  a clause  is  sometimes  plural,  as  in  Greek : 

Ut  Aeneas  jactetur  nota  tibi,  how  Aeneas  is  tossed  about  is  known  to  you.  Yerg. 

4.  A Neutee  Adjective  used  as  a substantive  sometimes  supplies  the  place 
of  a Predicate  Adjective  : ^ 

Mors  est  extremum,  death  is  the  last  thing.  Cic.  Triste  lupus  stabulis, 
a wolf  is  a sad  thing  for  the  flocks.  Yerg. 

X 5.  A Neutee  Adjective  with  a Genitive  is  often  used  instead  of  an  ad- 
jective with  its  noun,  especially  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative : 

much  service.^  Cic.  \6.  that  time. Cic.  Yana 

rhmm.,  vain  things.'^  Hor.  Opaca  viarum,  Yerg.  Strata  viarum, 

paved  streets.  Yerg.  See  also  397,  3,  note  4. 

6.  Synesis.3— Sometimes  the  adjective  or  participle  conforms  to  the  real 
meaning  of  its  noun,  without  regard  to  grammatical  gender  or  number : 

Pars  certare  parati, a part  (some),  prepared  to  contend.  Yerg.  Inspe- 
ranti ^ nobis,  to  us  (me)  not  expecting  it.  Catul.  Demosthenes  cum  ceteris 
erant  expulsi,^  Demosthenes  with  the  others  had  been  banished.  Nep. 

^ As  in  Greek : ovk  ayaObv  noXvKoipavLrj,  the  rule  of  the  many  is  not  a good  thing, 

2 Multum  operae  — multa  opera  ov  multam  operam  ; id  temporis  = id  tempus; 
vana  r^um  = vanae  res  or  vanas  res. 

3 A construction  according  to  sense;  see  636,  lY.,  4. 

^ Parati  is  plural,  to  conform  to  the  meaning  of  pars,  ‘part,’  ‘ some,’  plural  in  sense; 


240 


AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


Note.— In  the  Ablative  Absolute  (431)  absente  and  'praesente  occur  in  early  Latin 
with  a plural  noun  or  pronoun : ^ 

Praesente  1 ibus  {els')^  in  their  pres&uce  (lit.,  they  being  present).  Plaut.  Prae- 
sente testibus,  in  the  presence  of  witnesses.  Plaut. 

7.  Agreement  with  one  Noun  for  another. — When  a noun  governs  an- 
other in  the  Genitive,  an  adjective  belonging  in  sense  to  one  of  the  two  nouns, 
sometimes  agrees  with  the  other : 

Majora  (for  majorum)  rerum  initia,  the  beginnings  of  greater  things,  Liv. 
Cursus  justi  amnis,  the  regular  course  of  the  river,  Liv. 

Note  1.— In  the  passive  forms  of  verbs  the  participle  sometimes  agrees  with  a 
predicate  noun,  or  with  an  appositive;  see  463. 

Note  2. — An  adjective  or  participle  predicated  of  an  Accusative  is  sometimes  attracted 
into  the  Nominative  to  agree  with  the  subject : 
i Ostendit  se  dextra  (for  dextra'm\  she  shows  herself  favorable.  Verg. 

y 439.  An  adjective  or  participle,  belonging  to  two  or  more 
WuNS,  may  agree  with  them  all  conjointly^  or  may  agree  with  one 
and  be  understood  with  the  others : 

Castor  et  Pollux  visi  sunt.  Castor  and  Pollux  were  seen.  Cic.  Duhitare 
visus  est  Sulpicius  et  Cotta,  Sulpicius  and  Cotta  seemed  to  doubt,  Cic.  Temerh 
tas  ignoratioque  vitiosa  est,  rashness  and  ignorance  are  bad,  Cic. 

! 1.  The  Attributive  Adjective  generally  agrees  with  the  nearest  noun: 

/ Agri  omnes  et  maria,  all  lands  and  seas.  Cic.  Cuncta  maria  terraeque, 
^ali  seas  and  lands.  Sail. 

^ 2.  A plural  adjective  or  participle,  agreeing  with  two  or  more  nouns  of 
DIFFERENT  GENDERS,  is  generally  masculine  when  the  nouns  denote  persons 
or  sentient  beings,  and  in  other  cases  generally  neuter : _ 

Pater  et  mater  mortui  sunt,  father  and  mother  are  dead.  Ter.  Honores, 
victoriae  fortuita  sunt,  honors  and  victories  are  accidental  things.  Cic.  Labor 
voluptasque  inter  se  sunt  juncta,  labor  and  pleasure  are  joined  together.  Liv. 

Note.— When  nouns  denoting  sentient  beings  are  combined  with  those  denoting 
things,  the  plural  adjective  or  participle  in  agreement  with  them  sometimes  takes  the 
gender  of  the  former  and  sometimes  of  the  latte/r.,  and  sometimes  is  neuter  irrespective 
of  the  gender  of  the  nouns : 

Rex  regiaque  classis  profecti  sunt,  the  king  and  the  royal  fleet  set  out.  Liv.  Regem 
regnumque  sua  futura  sciunt,  they  know  that  the  king  and  the  kingdom  will  be  theirs. 
Liv.  Inimica  ^ inter  se  sunt  libera  civitas  et  rex,  a free  state  and  a king  are  hostile  to 
each  other.  Liv. 

3.  With  nouns  denoting  inanimate  objects,  the  adjective  or  participle  is 
often  neuter,  irrespective  of  the  gender  of  the  nouns : 

Labor  et  dolor  sunt  finitima,  labor  and  pain  are  Icindred  (things).  Cic. 


Insperanti  is  singular,  because  nobis  is  here  applied  to  one  person,  the  speaker  (446, 
note  2) ; expulsi  is  plural,  because  Demosthenes  cum  cete/rls  means  Demosthenes  and 
the  others. 

1 In  this  construction  absente  and  praesente  appear  to  be  treated  as  adverbs. 

2 See  p.  73,  foot-note  2. 

3 Perhaps  best  explained  substantively— things  hostile ; see  438,  4. 


USE  OF  ADJECTIVES, 


241 


Nox  atque  praeda  hostis  remorata  sunt,  night  and  plunder  detained  the  enemy. 
Sail. 

4.  Two  OR  MORE  ADJECTIVES  in  the  singular  may  belong  to  a plural  noun: 

Prima  et  vicesima  legiones,  the  first  and  the  twentieth  legions.  Tac. 

Note.— In  the  same  way  two  or  more  praenomina  ^ in  the  singular  may  he  com- 
bined with  a family  name  in  the  plural : 

Gnaeus  et  Publius  Scipiones,  Gnaens  and  PuhUus  Scipio.  Cic.  Publius  et  Servius 
Sullae,  Publius  and  Servius  Sulla.  Sail. 

Use  op  Adjectiyes. 

440.  The  adjective  in  Latin  corresponds  in  its  general  use  to 
the  adjective  in  English. 

1.  In  Latin,  as  in  English,  an  adjective  may  qualify  the  complex  idea 
formed  by  a noun  and  another  adjective : 

Duae  potentissimae  gentes,  two  very  powerful  races.  Liv.  Magnum  aes 
alienum,  a large  debt.  Cic.  Naves  longas  triginta  veteres,  thirty  old  vessels 
of  war.  Liv.  2 

Note. — In  general  no  connective  is  used  when  adjectives  are  combined,  as  in  duae 
potentissimae  gentes.,  etc. ; but  if  the  first  adjective  is  multi  or  plurimi.^  the  connective 
is  usually  inserted : 

Multae  et  magnae  cogitationes,  many  great  thoughts.  Cic.  Multa  et  praeclara  fa- 
cinora, many  illustrious  deeds.  Sail. 

2.  Prolepsis  or  Anticipation. — An  adjective  is  sometimes  applied  to  a 
noun  to  denote  the  result  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb : 

Submersas 3 obrue  puppes,  overwhelm  and  sinlc  the  ships  (lit.,  overwhelm 
the  sunlcen  ships).  Verg.  Scuta  latentia  ^ condunt,  they  conceal  their  hidden 
shields.  Verg. 

Note  1.— Certain  adjectives  often  designate  a particular  part  of  an  object:  prlma 
nox.  the  first  part  of  the  night ; media  aestate.,  in  the  middle  of  summer;  summus  mons., 
the  top  (highest  part)  of  the  mountain. 

Note  2. — The  adjectives  thus  used  are  primus.,  medius.,  ultimus.,  extremus.,  postre- 
mus., intimus.,  summus.,  Infimus.,  Imus.,  supremus.,  reliquus.,  cetera.,  etc. 

Note  3.— In  the  poets,  in  Livy,  and  in  late  prose  writers,  the  neuter  of  these  adjec- 
tives with  a Genitive  sometimes  occurs  : 

Libyae  extrema,  the  frontiers  of  Libya.  Verg.  Ad  ultimum  inopiae  (for  ad  ultimam 
inopiam),  to  extreme  destitution.  Liv. 

Note  4.— Adjectives  are  often  combined  with  res  : res  adversae.,  adversity ; res  se- 
cundae., prosperity;  res  novae.,  revolution;  res  publica.,  republic. 


1 For  Eoman  names,  see  649. 

2 Here  duae  qualifies  not  simply  gentes,  but  potentissimae  gentes;  magnum  quali- 
fies aes  alienum^  ‘debt’  (lit.,  money  belonging  to  another)'.,  veteres  qualifies  naves 
longds.,  ‘vessels  of  war’  (lit.,  ‘long  vessels’),  while  triginta  qualifies  the  still  more  com- 
plex expression,  naves  longds  veteres. 

® Observe  that  submersds  gives  the  result  of  the  action  denoted  by  obrue.,  and  is  not 
applicable  to  puppes  until  that  action  is  performed ; latentia  likewise  gives  the  result 
of  condumt. 


17 


242 


' ’ ' ‘ USE  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


441.  Adjectives  and  participles  are  often  used  substantively 
Bonl.,  the  good  ; mortales.^  mortals ; doctl.^  the  learned  ; sagientes.,  the  wise ; 

multi.,  many  persons;  multa.,  many  things;  praefectus.,  a prefect; 2 ndtus.,  a son.2 

1.  In  the  plural,  masculine  adjectives  and  participles  often  designate  persons,  and 
neuter  adjectives  things:  fortes.,  the  brave;  divites.,  the  rich;  pauperes.,  the  poor; 
multi,  many;  paucl,  few;  omnes,  all;  men,  my  friends;  discentes,  learners;  spectantes, 
spectators ; futura,  future  events ; utilia,  useful  things ; mea,  nostra,  my  things,  our 
things ; omnia,  all  things ; haec,  ilia,  these  things,  those  things. 

2.  In  the  singular,  adjectives  and  participles  are  occasionally  used  substantively 

especially  in  the  Genitive,  or  in  the  Accusative  or  Ablative  with  a preposition : doctus, 
a learned  man;  adulescens,  a young  man;  verum,  a true  thing,  the  truth;  falsum,  a 
falsehood ; nihil  sinceri,  nothing  of  sincerity,  nothing  sincere ; nihil  humdnd,  nothing 
human;  nihil  reliqui,  nothing  left;  3 aliquid  novl,  something  new;  dprlmb,  from  the 
beginning;  ad  extremum,  to  the  end;  ad  summum,  to  the  highest  point;  de  integro, 
afresh;  de  unexpectedly ; ex  aequo,  in  like  manner;  in  praesemM,  at  pres- 

ent; in  futiirum,  for  the  future;  pro  certb,  as  certain.^ 

Note  1.— For  the  neuter  participle  with  opus  and  usus,  see  414,  IV.,  note  3. 

Note  2.— For  the  use  of  adjectives  instead  of  nouns  in  the  Genitive,  see  395,  note  2. 

3.  A few  substantives  are  sometimes  used  as  adjectives,  especially  verbal  nouns  in 
tor  and  tn'lx : ^ victor  exercitus,  a victorious  army ; homo  gladiator,  a gladiator,  a gladi- 
atorial man;  vlcVrlces  Athenae,  victorious  {conquen^ing)  Athens;  populus  late  rex,  a 

V people  of  extensive  sway.® 

442.  Equivalent  to  a Clause. — Adjectives,  like  nouns  in  ap- 
position, are  sometimes  equivalent  to  clauses  : 


Nemo  saltat  sobrius,  no  one  dances  when  he  is  soler,  or  when  sober.  Cic. 
Hortensium  vivum  amavi,  I loved  Hortensius,  while  he  was  alive.  Cic.  HomO 
nunquam  sobrius,  a man  who  is  never  sober.  Cic. 


Note. — Prior,  primus,  ultimus,  postremus,  are  often  best  rendered  by  a relative  clause: 
Primus  morem  solvit,  he  was  the  f/rst  who  broke  the  custom.'^  Liv. 


443.  Adjectives  and  Adverbs. — Adjectives  are  sometimes 
used  where  our  idiom  employs  adverbs : 

Socrates  venenum  laetus  hausit,  Socrates  cheerfully  drank  the  poison. 
Sen.  Senatus  frequens  convenit,  the  senate  assembled  in  great  numbers.  Cic. 
Eoscius  erat  Eomae  frequens,  Roscius  was  frequently  at  Rome.  Cic. 


1 That  is,  words  which  were  originally  adjectives  or  participles  sometimes  become 
substantives;  indeed,  many  substantives  were  originally  adjectives;  see  333,  foot-note; 
334,  foot-note. 

2 Praefectus,  from  praeficio  (lit.,  one  appointed  over)',  ndtus,  from  nascor  (lit, 
one  born). 

3 See  397, 1.  For  nihil  rtliqul  fac&re,  see  401,  note  4. 

^ Numerous  adverbial  expressions  are  thus  formed  by  combining  the  neuter  of  adjec- 
tives with  prepositions. 

® That  is,  these  words  are  generally  substantives,  but  sometimes  adjectives. 

® See  Yerg.,  Aen.,  I.,  21. 

’ With  the  adverb  prlmvm  the  thought  would  be,  he  fi/rst  broke  the  custom  (i.  e., 
before  doing  anything  else).  Compare  the  corresponding  distinction  between  the  Greek 
adjective  TrpwTos  and  the  adverb  TrpwTov. 


243 


USE  OF  ADJECTIVE^. 

Note  1. — The  adjectives  chiefly  thus  used  are — (1)  Those  expressive  of  joy ^ knowU 
edQO^  and  their  opposites : laetus^  libens^  inEltus^  tristis^  sciens^  Insciens^  prudens^  im- 
prudens^ etc.  (2)  Nullus^  solus,  totus,  imus;  prior,  primus,  propior,  proximus,  etc. 

Note  2. — In  the  poets  a few  adjectives  of  time  and  place  are  used  in  the  same  manner : 

Domesticus  otior,  I idle  about  home,  Hor.  Vespertinus  pete  tectum,  at  evening 
seek  your  abode.  Hor. 

Note  3. — In  rare  instances  adverbs  seem  to  supply  the  place  of  adjectives : 

Omnia  recte  sunt,  all  things  are  right.  Cic.  Non  Ignari  sumus  ante  malorum, ^ wq 
are  not  ignorant  of  past  misfortunes.  Yerg.  Nunc  hominum  ^ mores,  the  charact&^ 
qf  men  of  the  present  day.  Plaut. 

Note  4. — Numeral  adverbs  often  occur  with  titles  of  oflQce:  2 

Flaminius,  consul  iterum,  Flaminius,  when  consul  for  the  second  time.  Cic. 

444.  A COMPARISON  between  two  objects  requires  the  com- 
parative degree  ; between  more  than  two,  the  superlative  : 

Prior  horum,  the  former  of  these  (two).  Nep.  Gallorum  fortissimi,  the 
bravest  of  the  Gauls.  Caes. 

>s.l.  The  comparative  sometimes  has  the  force  of  too,  unusually,  some- 
what, and  the  superlative,  the  force  of  very  : doctior,  too  learned,  or  some- 
what learned ; doctissimus,  very  learned. 

Note. — Certain  superlatives  are  common  as  titles  of  honor : clarissimus,  nobilissi- 
mus, and  especially  applicable  to  men  of  consular  or  senatorial  rank ; fortissi- 

mus, honestissimus,  illustrissimus,  and  splendidissimus— Q&^eoXaWy  applicable  to  those 
of  the  equestrian  order. 

2.  Comparative  after  Quam. — When  an  object  is  said  to  possess  one 
quality  in  a higher  degree  than  another,  the  two  adjectives  thus  used  either 
may  be  connected  by  magis  quam  3 or  may  both  be  put  in  the  comparative : ^ 

Disertus  magis  quam  sapiens,  more  fluent  than  wise.^  Cic.  Praeclarum  magis 
quam  difficile,  more  noble  than  difficult,  or  noble  rather  than  difficult.  Cic.  Ditiores 
quam  fortiores,  more  wealthy  than  brave.^  Liv.  Clarior  quam  gratior,  more  illustri- 
ous thorn  pleasing.  Liv. 

Note  1. — In  a similar  manner  two  adverbs  may  be  connected  by  magis  qua/m,  or 
may  both  be  put  in  the  comparative : 

Magis  audacter  quam  parate,  with  more  audacity  than  preparation.  Cic.  Bellum 
fortius  quam  felicius  gerere,  to  wage  war  with  more  valor  than  success.  Liv. 

Note  2. — The  form  with  magis,  both  in  adjectives  and  in  adverbs,  may  sometimes 
be  best  rendered  rather  than : 

Ars  magis  magna  quam  difficilis,  an  art  extensive  rather  than  difficult.  Cic.  See 
also  the  second  example  under  2,  above. 

Note  3.— In  the  later  Latin  the  positive  sometimes  follows  quam,  even  when  the 
regular  comparative  precedes,  and  sometimes  two  positives  are  used  : 

Vehementius  quam  caute  appetere,  to  seek  more  eagerly  than  cautiously.  Tac. 
Claris  quam  vetustis,  illustrious  rather  than  ancient.  Tac. 

Note  4. — For  the  use  of  comparatives  before  quam  pro,  see  417, 1,  note  5. 

^ Like  the  Greek  tUv  npiv  KaKtav  and  rHiv  vvv  avOpdnoyv. 

2 The  want  of  a present  participle  in  the  verb  sum  brings  these  adverbs  into  close 
connection  with  nouns. 

3 As  in  English,  more  fluent  them  wise.  This  is  the  usual  method  in  Cicero. 

^ As  in  Greek,  TrAetoveg  y\  jSeArtoi/e?,  more  numerous  than  good.  This  method,  com 
mon  in  Livy,  is  rare  in  the  earlier  writers. 


AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS. 


244 

^ 8.  Strengthening  Words.  — Comparatives  and  superlatives  are  often 
strengthened  by  a preposition  with  its  case,  as  by  ante.,  prae.,  praeter.,  supra 
(41’7,  1,  note  3).  Comparatives  are  also  often  strengthened  by  even, 

still ; muUd.,  much ; and  superlatives  by  longe.,  multo,  by  far,  much ; ml,  even ; 
unus,  unus  omnium,  alone,  alone  of  all,  without  exception,  far,  by  far;  quarn, 
quam  or  quantus  with  the  verb  possum,  as  possible ; tarn  quam  qul,  ut  qul, 
as  possible  (lit.,  as  he  ivho) : 

Majores  etiam  varietates,  emn  greater  varieties.  Cic.  Multo  etiam  gravius  queri- 
tur, he  complains  even  much  more  Mtterly.  Caes.  Multo  maxima  pars,  hy  far  the 
largest  part.  Cic.  Quam  saepissime,  as  often  as  possible.  Cic.  Unus  omnium  doctis- 
simus, without  exception  the  most  learned  of  men.  Cic.  Ees  una  omnium  difficillima, 
a thing  by  far  the  most  difficult  of  all.  Cic.  Quam  maximae  copiae, /orces  as  large 
as  possible.  Sail.  Quantam  maximam  potest  vastitatem  ostendit,  A-e  exhibits  the  greats 
est  possible  desolation  (lit.,  as  great  as  the  greatest  he  can).  Liv. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SYNTAX  OF  PRONOUNS. 


j RULE  XXXV.— Agreement  of  Pronouns. 

i 445.  A pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  gender, 
? truMBER,  and  person  : d 

Animal  quod  sanguinem  habet,  an  animal  which  has  hlooa.  Cic.  Ego, 
qul  te  confirmo,  I who  encourage  you.  Cic.  Vis  est  in  virtutibus,  em 
excita,  there  is  strength  in  virtues,  arouse  them.  Cic. 

Note. — The  antecedent  is  the  word  or  words  to  which  the  pronoun  refers,  and  whose 
place  it  supplies.  Thus,  in  the  examples  under  the  rule,  animal  is  the  antecedent  of 
quod;  ego.,  of  qul;  and  virtutibus,  of  eds. 

- 1.  This  rule  applies  to  all  pronouns  when  used  as  nouns.  Pronouns  used 

as  adjectives  conform  to  the  rule  for  adjectives ; see  438. 

2.  When  the  antecedent  is  a demonstrative  in  agreement  with  a personal 
pronoun,  the  relative  agrees  with  the  latter ; 

Tu  es  is  qul  me  ornasti,  you  are  the  one  who  commended  me.  Cic. 

^ 3.  When  a relative,  or  other  pronoun,  refers  to  two  or  more  antecedents, 
it  generally  agrees  with  them  conjointly,  but  it  sometimes  agrees  with  the 
nearest  or  the  most  important : 

Pietas,  virtus,  fides,  quarum  i Romae  templa  sunt,  piety,  virtue,  and  faith, 
WHOSE  temples  are  at  Rome.  Cic.  Peccatum  ac  culpa,  quae,^  error  and  fault, 

WHICH.  Cic. 

1 Qudrum  agrees  with  pietds.,  virtus.,  and  fides  conjointly,  and  is  accordingly  in  the 
plural ; but  quae  agrees  simply  with  culpa. 


AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS. 


345 


Note  1. — With  antecedents  of  different  gende/rs^  the  pronoun  conforms  in  gender  to 
the  rule  for  adjectives  (439,  2 and  8)  : 

Puerl  mulieresque  hoys  and  women  who.  Caes.  Inconstantia  et  temeritas, 

quae  ^ digna  non  sunt  deo,  inconstancy  and  rashness  which  are  not  worthy  of  a 
god.  Cic. 

Note  2. — With  antecedents  of  different  persons.,  the  pronoun  prefers  the  first  person 
to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third,  conforming  to  the  rule  for  verbs  (463, 1) : 

Ego  ac  th  inter  nos  ^ loquimur,  you  and  I con'cerse  together.  Tac.  Et  tu  et  collegae 
tui,  qu%  2 sperastis,  hoth  you  and  your  colleagues.,  who  hoped.  Cic. 

4.  By  Attraction,  a pronoun  sometimes  agrees  with  a Predicate  Noun 
or  an  Appositive  instead  of  the  antecedent : 

Animal  quern  (for  quod)  vocamus  hominem,  the  animal  which  we  call 
man.^  Cic.  Thehae,  quod  {quae)  caput  est,  Thebes.^  which  is  the  capital.  Liv. 
Ea  {id)  erat  confessio,  that  (i.  e.,  the  action  referred  to)  was  a confession. 
Liv.  Flumen  Rhenus,  qu%  the  river  Rhine.,  which.  Caes. 

5.  By  Synesis,  the  pronoun  is  sometimes  construed  according  to  the  real 
meaning  of  the  antecedent,'  without  regard  to  grammatical  form ; and  some- 
times it  refers  to  the  class  of  objects  to  which  the  antecedent  belongs : 

Quia  fessum  militem  habebat,  his  quietem  dedit,  as  he  had  an  exhausted 
soldiery.,  he  gave  them  (these)  a rest.  Liv.  Equitatus,  qui  viderunt,  the  cav- 
alry WHO  saw.  Caes.  De  alia  re,  quod  ad  me  attinet,  in  regard  to  another 
thing  WHICH  pertains  to  me.  Plant.  Earum  rerum  utrumque.,  each  of  these 
things.  Cic.  Democritum  omittamus ; apud  istos  ; let  us  omit  Democritus ; 
with  SUCH  (i.  e.,  as  he).  Cic. 

I 6.  Antecedent  Omitted. — The  antecedent  of  the  relative  is  often  omitted 
Vwhen  it  is  indefinite,  is  a demonstrative  pronoun,  or  is  implied  in  a posses- 
Kve  pronoun,  or  in  an  adjective : 

Sunt  qui  censeant,  the7^e  are  some  who  thinh.  Cic.  Terra  reddit  quod  ac- 
cepit, the  earth  returns  what  it  has  received.  Cic,  Vestra,  qui  cum  integri- 
tate vixistis,  hoc  interest,  this  intei^ests  you  who  have  lived  with  integrity.  Cio 
Servilis  tumultus  quos,  the  revolt  of  the  slaves  whom.  Caes. 

7.  Clause  as  Antecedent. — When  the  antecedent  is  a sentence  or  clause, 
the  pronoun,  unless  attracted  (445^  4),  is  in  the  Neuter  Singular,  but  the 
relative  generally  adds  id  as  an  appositive  to  such  antecedent : 

Nos,  id  quod  debet,  patria  delectat,  our  country  delights  us.,  as  it  ought 
(lit.,  that  which  it  owes).  Cic.  Regem,  quod  nunquam  antea  acciderat,  neca- 
verunt, they  put  their  king  to  death.,  which  had  never  before  happened.  Cic. 

8.  Relative  Attracted. — The  relative  is  sometimes  attracted  into  the 
case  of  the  antecedent,  and  sometimes  agrees  with  the  antecedent  repeated : 

Judice  quo  (for  quern)  nosti,  the  judge  whom  you  know.  Hor.  Dies  instat, 


^ Qui  agrees  with  puerl  and  mulieres  conjointly,  and  is  in  the  masculine.,  according 
tc  439,  2;  but  quae  is  in  the  neuter.,  according  to  439,  3. 

2 Nos.,  referring  to  ego  dc  tu.,  is  in  the  first  person  ; while  qui.,  referring  to  tu  et  coh 
legae.,  is  in  the  second  person,  as  is  shown  by  the  verb  sperastis. 

3 In  these  examples,  the  pronouns  quern.,  quod.,  and  ea  are  attracted.,  to  agree  with 
their  predicate  nouns,  hominem.,  caput.,  and  confessio;  but  qui  agrees  with  the  apposi^ 
tive,  Rhenus. 


246 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 


quo  die,  the  day  is  at  hand^  on  which  day,  Caes.  Cumae,  quam  urbem  tene- 
bant, Cumae,,  which  city  they  held.  Liv. 

9.  Antecedent  Attracted. — In  poetry,  rarely  in  prose,  the  antecedent  is 
sometimes  attracted  into  the  case  of  the  relative  *,  and  sometimes  incorporated 
in  the  relative  clause  with  the  relative  in  agreement  with  it : 

Urbem,  quam  statuo,  vestra  est,  the  city  which  I am  building  is  yours. 
Verg.i  Malarum,  quas  amor  curas  habet,  oblivisci  (for  malarum  curarum 
quds)^  to  forget  the  wretched  cares  which  love  has.  Hor.i  Quos  vos  implorare 
debetis,  ut,  quam  urbem  pulcherrimam  esse  voluerunt,  hanc  2 defendant,  these 
(lit. , whom)  you  ought  to  implore  to  defend  this  city,^  which  they  wished  to  he 
most  beautiful.  Cic. 

^ Use  of  Pronouns. 

446.  Personal  Pronouns. — The  Nominative  of  Personal  Pro- 
nouns is  used  only  for  emphasis  or  contrast  : ^ 

Significamus  quid  sentiamus,  we  show  what  we  think.  Cic.  Ego  reges 
ejeci,  vos  tyrannos  introducitis,  I have  banished  kings.,  you  introduce  tyrants. 
Cic. 

^Note  1. — With  quidem  the  pronoun  is  usually  expressed,  but  not  with  equidem: 
Facis  amice  tu  quidem,  you  act  indeed  in  a friendly  manner.  Cic.  Non  dubita- 
bam equidem,  I did  not  doubt  indeed.  Cic. 

^ Note  2. — A writer  sometimes  speaks  of  himself  in  the  plural,  using  nos  for  ego.,  noS' 
ter  for  mens.,  and  the  plural  verb  for  the  singular : 

Yides  nos  (for  me)  multa  conari,  you  see  that  we  (for  I)  are  attempting  many 
things.  Cic.  SermO  explicabit  nostram  (for  meam)  sententiam,  the  conversation  will 
unfold  our  (my)  opinion.  Cic.  DTximus  (for  dixi)  multa,  I have  said  many  things. 
Cic.4 

^ Note  3. — Nostri  and  vestrl  are  generally  used  in  an  objective  sense;  nostrum  and 
vestrum  in  a partitive  sense : 

Habetis  ducem  memorem  vestri.,  you  have  a leader  mindful  of  tour  interests  (op 
you).  Cic.  Minus  habeo  virium  quam  vestrum  utervis,  Ihave  less  strength  than  either 
OF  you.  Cic.  Quis  nostrum.,  who  of  us  ? Cic. 

Note  4. — With  ac?,  or  apud.,  a personal  pronoun  may  designate  the  residence  or 

abode  of  a person : 

A nobis  egreditur,  he  is  coming  from  our  house.  Ter.  Yeni  ad  me.,  I came  to  mt. 
house.  Cic.  Eamus  ad  me,  let  us  go  to  my  house.  Ter.  Apud  te  est,  he  is  at  your 
house.  Cic.  Riiri  apud  se  est,  he  is  at  his  residence  in  the  country.  Cic.  See  also 
433,  I.,  ad.,  apud.,  etc. 

\447.  PossESSiYE  Pronouns,  when  not  emphatic,  are  seldom 
expressed,  if  they  can  be  supplied  from  the  context : 

Manus  lava,  tvash  your  hands.  Cic.  Mihi  mea  vita  cara  est,  my  life  is 
dear  to  me.^  Plaut. 

1 For  other  examples,  see  Yerg.,  Aen.,  Y.,  28-30;  Hor.,  Sat.,  I.,  10, 16. 

2 Quam  urbem.,  hanc  = hanc  urbem.,  quam. 

3 The  learner  will  remember  that  a pronominal  subject  is  actually  contained  in  th€ 
ending  of  the  verb;  see  368,  2,  foot-note. 

4 For  other  examples,  see  Hor.,  Sat.,  I.,  9,  7,  and  Car.,  I.,  32. 

® In  this  example  mea  is  expressed  for  emphasis. 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 


U1 


Note  1. — Possessive  Pronouns  sometimes  mean  f av or aJ)le^  propitious^  as  alienus 
often  means  unfaxiorahle : 

Tempore  tuo  pugnasti,  you  fought  at  a favorable  time.  Liv.  Ferunt  sua  flamina 
favorable  winds  bear  the  fleet.  Yerg.  Alieno  loco  proelium  committunt,  they 
engage  in  battle  in  an  unfavorable  place.  Caes, 

Note  2. — For  the  Possessive  Pronoun  in  combination  with  a Genitive,  see  398,  3. 
For  certain  other  uses  of  Possessives,  see  396,  II.,  N.;  III.,  N.  2. 

>1  ^ Keflexiye  Use  of  Pronouns. — 8u\_  and  mus  have  a re- 
flexive  sense  ; ^ sometimes  also  the  other  personal  and  possessive 
pronouns : 

Miles  se  ipsum  interfecit,  the  soldier  Tcilled  himself.  Tac.  Telo  se  de- 
fendit, he  defends -himself  with  a weapon.  Cic.  Sua  vi  movetur,  he  is  moved 
by  his  oion  power.  Cic.  Me  consolor,  I console  myself.  Cic.  Vos  vestra  tecta 
defendite,  defend  your  houses.  Cic. 

>1  Note. — Inter  nos.,  inter  vos,  inter  se.,  have  a reciprocal  force,  each  other.,  one  am,- 
other.,  together  ; but  instead  of  i7iter  se.,  the  noun  may  be  repeated  in  an  oblique  case  : 
Colloquimur  inter  nos,  we  converse  together.  Cic.  Amant  inter  se,  they  love  one 
another.  Cic.  Homines  hominibus  utiles  sunt,  mem  are  useful  to  men  (i.  e.,  to  each 
other),  Cic. 

4 449.  and  mm  generally  refer  to  the  Subject  of  the  clause 
in  which  they  stand  : 

Se  diligit,  he  loves  hhnself.  Cic.  Justitia  propter  sese  colenda  justice 
should  be  cultivated  for  its  own  sake.  Cic.  Annulum  suum  dedit,  he  gave  his 
ring.  Nep.  Per  se  sibi  quisque  carus  est,  every  one  is  in  his  very  nature 
(through  or  in  himself)  dear  to  himself.  Cic. 

/ 1.  In  Subordinate  Clauses  expressing  the  sentiment  of  the  principal 
subject,  sui  and  suus  generally  refer  to  that  subject : 

Sentit  animus  se  vl  sua  mover!,  the  mind  perceives  that  it  is  moved  by  its  own 
power.  Cic.  A me  petivit  ut  secum  essem,  he  asked  (from)  me  to  be  with  him  (that  I 
would  be).  Cic.  Pervestigat  quid  sui  cives  cogitent,  he  tries  to  ascertain  lohat  his 
fellow-citizens  think.  Cic. 

1)  As  sui  and  suus  thus  refer  to  subjects,  the  demonstratives,  is.,  ille.,  etc.,  generally 
refer  either  to  other  words,  or  to  subjects  which  do  not  admit  sui  and  suus  : 

Deum  agnoscis  ex  ejus  operibus,  you  recognize  a god  by  (from)  his  works.  Cic. 
Obligat  civitatem  nihil  eos  mutaturos,  he  binds  the  state  not  to  change  anything  (that 
they  will).  Just. 

4 2)  In  some  subordinate  clauses  the  writer  may  at  pleasure  use  either  the  reflexive  or 
the  demonstrative,  according  as  he  wishes  to  present  the  thought  as  that  of  the  principal 
subject,  or  as  his  own  : 

Persuadent  Tulingis  uti  cum  iis  2 proficiscantur,  they  persuade  the  Tulingi  to  de- 
part with  them.  Caes. 

>/3)  Sometimes  refiexives  and  demonstratives  are  used  without  any  apparent  distinction ; 


1 Sul.,  of  himself;  sib\  for  himself;  se,  himself. 

2 Here  cum  ils  is  the  proper  language  for  the  writer  without  reference  to  the  senti- 
ment of  the  principal  subject ; secum.,  which  would  be  equally  proper,  would  present  the 
thought  as  the  sentiment  of  that  subject. 


m 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 


Caesar  Fabium  cum  Jegione  sua  i remittit,  Caesar  sends  hack  Fdbius  a/nd  (with) 
his  legion.  Caes.  Omitto  Isocratem  discipulosque  ejus,  i I omit  Isocrates  and  Ms  dis- 
ciples. Cic. 

2.  Suus,  in  the  sense  of  His  own,  Fitting,  etc.,  may  refer  to  subject  or 
object : 

Justitia  suum  cuique  justice  gives  to  eve/ry  man  Ms  due  (his  own).  Cic. 

^ 8.  Synesis. — When  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  not  the  real  agent  of  the 
action,  sul  and  suus  refer  to  the  agent : 

A Caesare  invitor  sibi  ut  sim  legatus,  I am  invited  hy  Caesar  (real  agent)  to  he  Ms 
lieute/nant.  Cic. 

'^4.  The  Plural  of  Suus,  meaning  His  Friends,  Their  Friends,  Their 
Possessions,  etc.,  is  used  with  great  freedom,  often  referring  to  oblique 
cases : 

Fuit  hoc  luctuosum  suis,  tMs  was  afflicting  to  Ms  friends.'^  Cic. 

5.  Sui  and  Suus  sometimes  refer  to  an  omitted  subject : 

Deforme  est  de  se  praedicare,  to  hoast  of  one's  self  is  disgusting.  Cic. 

6.  Two  Reflexives. — Sometimes  a clause  has  one  reflexive  referring  to 
the  principal  subject,  and  another  referring  to  the  subordinate  subject : 

Eespondit  neminem  secum  sine  sua  pernicie  contendisse,  he  replied  that  no  one  had 
contended  with  him  without  (his)  destruction.^  Caes. 

450.  Demonstrative  Pronouns. — iste^  ille^  are  often 
called  respectively  demonstratives  of  the  First,  Second,  and  Third 
Persons,  as  h%c  designates  that  which  is  near  the  speaker  ; iste.,  that 
which  is  near  the  person  addressed ; and  ille^  that  which  is  remote 
from  both : 

Custos  hiijus  urbis,  the  guardian  of  this  city  (i.  e.,  of  our  city).  Cic.  Muta 
istam  mentem,  change  that  purpose  of  yours.  Cic.  Ista  quae  sunt  a te  dicta, 
those  things  which  were  spoken  hy  you.  Cic.  Si  illos,  quos  videre  non  pos- 
sumus, neglegis,  if  you  disregard  those  (far  away,  yonder)  whom  we  can  not 
see.  Cic. 

^ 1.  Hic  designates  an  object  conceived  as  near,  and  ille  as  remote,  whether 
in  space.^  time.,  or  thought : 

Non  antiquo  illo  more,  sed  hoc  nostro  fuit  eruditus,  he  was  educated.,  not  in  that 
ancient.,  hut  in  this  our  modern  way.  Cic.  Hoc  illud  fuit,  was  it  (that)  thist  Verg. 

Note.— The  idea  of  contempt  often  implied  in  clauses  with  iste  is  not  strictly  con- 
tained in  the  pronoun  itself,  but  derived  from  the  context : ^ 

Animi  est  ista  mollities,  non  virtus,  that  is  an  effeminate  spirit.,  not  valor.  Caes. 

1 Observe  that  the  reflexive  is  used  in  the  first  example,  and  the  demonstrative  in 
the  second,  though  the  cases  are  entirely  alike. 

2 Here  suis  refers  to  an  oblique  case  in  the  preceding  sentence. 

3 Here  se  refers  to  the  subject  of  respondit,  and  sud  to  neminem,  the  subject  of  the 

subordinate  clause.  • 

4 The  idea  of  contempt  is  readily  explained  by  the  fact  that  iste  is  often  applied  to 
the  views  of  an  opponent,  to  a defendant  before  a court  of  justice,  and  the  like. 


349 


i I 


itnbtct^r 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 

2.  Former  and  Latter. — In  reference  to  two  objects  previously  mentioned, 
(1)  Me  generally  follows  ille  and  refers  to  the  latter  object,  while  ille  refers 
to  the  former  ; but  (2)  Me  may  precede  and  may  refer  to  the  former^  and  ille 
refer  to  the  latter  : 

InimIcT,  amici ; illi,  hi,  enemies^  friends ; the  former^  the  latter.  Cic.  Certa  pax, 
sperata  victoria;  haec  {pax)  in  tua,  ilia  in  deorum  potestate  est,  sure  peace.,  hoped  for 
victory  ; the  former  is  in  your  power ^ the  latter  in  the  power  of  the  gods.  Liv. 

Note. — Hie  refers  to  the  former  object,  when  that  object  is  conceived  of  as  nearer 
in  thought.,  either  because  of  its  importance,  or  because  of  its  close  connection  with  the 
subject  under  discussion. ^ 

3.  Hie  and  ille  are  often  used  of  what  immediately  follows  in  discourse : 

His  verbis  epistulam  misit,  he  sent  a letter  in  these  words  (i.  e.,  in  the  following 

words).  Nep.  lllud  intellego,  omnium  ora  in  me  conversa  esse,  this  I understand.,  that 
the  eyes  of  all  are  turned  upon  me.  Sail. 

4.  file  is  often  used  of  what  is  well  known,  famous  : 

Medea  ilia,  that  well-known  Medea.  Cic.  Ego,  ille  ferox,  tacui,  /,  that  haughty  one. 
was  silent.  Ovid. 

Note  l.—Hlc  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  meus  or  noster rarely  to  ego,  and  hie 
homo  to  ego : 

Supra  hanc  memoriam,  before  our  time  (lit.,  before  this  memory).  Cic,  His  mels 
litteris,  with  this  letter  of  mine  (from  me).  Cic.  Hie  homOst  omnium  hominum,  etc., 
of  all  men  lam,  etc.  (lit.,  this  man  is).  Plaut. 

Note  2. — Hlc,  ille,  and  is  are  sometimes  redundant,  especially  with  quidem  : 

Scipio  non  multum  ille  dicebat,  Scipio  did  not  indeed  say  much.  Cic.  Graeci  vo- 
lunt illi  quidem,  the  Greeks  indeed  desire  it.  Cic,  Ista  tranquillitas  ea  ipsa  est  beata 
vita,  that  tranquillity  is  itself  a happy  life.'^  Cic. 

Note  3.— A demonstrative  or  relative  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  a Genitive,  or  to  a 
preposition  with  its  case  : Mic  amor  = amor  hujus  rei,  ‘ the  love  of  this  ’ ; haec  ciira  = 
cur  a de  hoc,  ‘ care  concerning  this.’ 

Note  4. — Adverbs  derived  from  demonstrative  pronouns  share  the  distinctive  mean- 
ings of  the  pronouns  themselves  : 

Hie  plus  mail  est,  quam  illic  boni,  there  is  more  of  e^il  here,  than  of  good  there.  Ter. 
See  also  304;  305. 


45 1 . is  and  Idem  refer  to  preceding  nouns,  or  are  the  antece- 
dents of  relatives ; 

Dionysius  aufugit,  is  est  in  provincia,  Dionysius  has  fled.,  he  is  in  the 
province.  Cic.  Is  qui  satis  habet,  he  who  has  enough.  Cic.  Eadem  audire 
malunt,  they  prefer  to  hear  the  same  things.  Liv. 

1.  The  pronoun  is,  the  weakest  of  the  demonstratives,  is  often  understood,  especially 
before  a relative  or  a Genitive : 

Flebat  pater  de  filii  morte,  de  patris  filius,  the  father  wept  over  the  death  of  the  son, 
the  son  over  (that)  of  the  father.  Cic.  See  also  445,  6. 


1 Thus,  in  the  last  example,  haec  refers  to  certa  pax  as  the  more  prominent  object 
in  the  mind  of  the  speaker,  as  he  is  setting  forth  the  advantages  of  a sure  peace  over  a 
hoped-for  victory. 

2 For  other  examples,  see  Yerg.,  Aen.,  I.,  3 ; III.,  490;  and  XI.,  809.  For  the  use  of 
personal  pronouns  with  quidem,  see  446,  note  1. 


350 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 


2.  7s,  with  a conjunction^  is  often  used  for  emphasis,  like  the  English,  and  that  too. 
and  that  indeed : 

Unam  rem  explicabo,  eamque  maximam,  one  thing  I will  explain.^  and  that  too  a 
most  important  one.  Cic.  Andire  Cratippum,  idque  Athenis,  to  hear  Cratippus.,  and 
^ that  too  at  Athens.^  Cic. 

3.  Idem  is  sometimes  best  rendered  also.,  at  the  same  time.,  at  once,  hoth,  yet: 

Nihil  utile,  quod  non  idem  honestum,  nothing  useful,  which  is  not  also  honorable. 

Cic.  Cum  dIcat,  negat  idem,  though  he  asserts,  he  yet  denies  (the  same  denies).  Cic. 
Kex  Anius,  rex  idem  hominum  Phoebique  sacerdos.  King  Anius,  both  king  of  men  and 
priest  of  Apollo.  Verg. 

4.  Is — qul  means  he— who,  such — as,  such — that: 

li  sumus,  qui  esse  debemus,  we  are  such  as  we  ought  to  be.  Cic.  Ea  est  gens  quae 
nesciat,  the  race  is  such  that  it  knous  not.  Liv. 

5.  Idem — qul  means  the  same— who,  the  same — as;  Idem — dc  {atque,  et,  que).  Idem 
—ut.  Idem — cum  with  the  Ablative,  the  same— as : 

Eidem  mores,  qui,  the  same  manners  which  or  as.  Cic.  Est  idem  ac  fuit,  he  is  the 
same  as  he  was.  Ter.  Eodem  mecum  patre  genitus,  the  son  of  the  same  father  as  I 
\ (with  me).  Tac. 

\ 6.  For  the  distinction  between  is  and  sui  in  subordinate  clauses,  see  449, 1,  2). 

A 452.  adds  emphasis,  generally  rendered  ; 

Ipse  Pater  fulmina  molitur,  the  Father  himself  (Jupiter)  hurls  the  thunder- 
bolts. Verg.  Ipse  2 dixit,  he  himself  said  it.  Cic.  Ipse  Caesar,  Caesar  him- 
, self.  Cic.  Fac  ut  te  ipsum  custodias,  see  that  you  guard  yourself.  Cic. 

^ 1.  Ipse  belongs  to  the  emphatic  word,  whether  subject  or  object,  but  with  a prefer- 

ence for  the  subject : 

Me  ipse  consolor,  I myself  (not  another)  console  myself.  Cic.  Ipse  se  quisque  dili- 
git, erery  one  (himself)  loves  himself.  Cic.  Se  ipsum  interfecit,  he  killed  himself.  Tac. 

Note. — Ipse  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  secum,  ‘with  himself,’  ‘alone,’  or  by  per 
se,  ‘ by  himself,’  ‘ unaided,’  ‘ in  and  of  himself,’  etc. : 

Aliud  genitor  secum  ipse  volutat,  the  father  (Jupiter)  himself  alone  ponders  an- 
other  plan.  Yerg.  Quod  est  rectum  ipsumque  per  se  laudabile,  which  is  right,  and  in 
s and  of  itself  praiseworthy . Cic. 

A 2.  Ipse  is  often  best  rendered  by  very : 

Ipse  ille  Gorgias,  that  very  Gorgias.  Cic. 

3.  With  numerals,  ipse  means  just  so  many,  just;  so  also  in  numc  ipsum,  ‘just  at 
this  time ’ ; turn  ipsum,  ‘just  at  that  time ’ : 

Triginta  dies  ipsT,  just  thirty  days.  Cic.  Nunc  ipsum  sine  te  esse  non  possum,  just 
at  this  time  I cannot  be  without  you.  Cic. 

4.  Ipse  in  the  Genitive  with  possessives  has  the  force  of  own,  onds  own : 

Nostra  ipsorum  amicitia,  our  own  friendship.  Cic.  See  398,  3. 

5.  Ipse  in  a subordinate  clause  sometimes  refers  to  the  principal  subject,  like  an  em- 
phatic sul  or  suus : 

Legatos  misit  qul  ipsi  vitam  peterent,  he  sent  messengers  to  ask  life  for  himself.  Sail. 

6.  M ipse  and  ipse  quoque  may  often  be  rendered  also,  likewise,  even  he:^ 

Alius  Achilles  natus  et  ipse  dea,  another  Achilles  likewise  (lit.,  himself  also)  born 
of  a goddess.  Yerg. 


^ Id,  thus  used,  often  refers  to  a clause,  or  to  the  general  thought,  as  in  this  example. 

2 Applied  to  Pythagoras  by  his  disciples.  Ipse  is  often  thus  used  of  a superior,  as 
of  a master,  teacher,  etc. 

3 Compare  the  Greek  /cal  avrd?. 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 


251 


7.  For  the  use  of  the  Nominative  ipse  in  connection  with  the  Ablative  Absolute,  see 
431,  note  3. 

^ 453.  Relative  Pronouns. — The  relative  is  often  used  where 

the  English  idiom  requires  a demonstrative  or  personal  pronoun  ; 
sometimes  even  at  the  beginning  of  a sentence  : 

Ees  loquitur  ipsa,  quae  semper  valet,  the  fact  itself  speaks^  and  this 
(which)  ever  has  weight.  Cic.  QuI  proelium  committunt,  they  engage  in  bat- 
tle. Caes.  Quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so.  Cic. 

1.  Eelatives  and  Demonstratives  are  often  correlatives  to  each  other. 
hie — iste — etc.  These  combinations  generally  retain  the  ordinary 
force  of  the  separate  words,  but  see  is — gul.^  Idem — qul.,  451,  4 and  5. 

Note. — The  neuter  quidquid^  accompanied  by  an  adjective,  a participle,  or  a Geni- 
tive, may  be  used  of  persons  : 

Matres  et  quidquid  tecum  invalidum  est  delige,  select  the  mothers  and  whatever 
feeble  persons  there  are  with  you  (lit.,  whatever  the/re  is  with  you  feeble).  Verg, 
Quidquid  erat  patrum,  whatever  fathers  there  were.  Liv.  See  also  397,  3,  note  5. 

2.  In  Two  Successive  Clauses,  the  relative  may  be — (1)  expressed  in 
both,  (2)  expressed  in  the  first  and  omitted  in  the  second,  (3)  expressed  in 
the  first  and  followed  by  a demonstrative  in  the  second  . 

Nos  qui  sermon!  non  interfuissemus  et  quibr-s  Cotta  sententias  tradidisset,  we  who 
had  not  been  present  at  the  conversation.,  and  to  whom  Cotta  had  reported  the  opin- 
ions. Cic.  Dumnorix  qui  principatum  obtinebat  ac  plebi  acceptus  erat,  Dumnorix.,  who 
held  the  chief  authority.,  and  who  was  acceptable  to  the  common  people.  Caes.  Quae 
oec  haberemus  nec  his  uteremur,  which  we  should  neither  have  nor  use.  Cic. 

Note  1. — Several  relatives  may  appear  in  successive  clauses : 

Omnes  qui  vestitum,  qui  tecta,  qui  cultum  vitae,  qui  praesidia  contra  feras  invene- 
runt, all  icho  introduced  (invented)  clothing.,  houses.,  the  refinements  of  life,  protec- 
tion against  wild  oeasts.  Cic. 

Note  2.— A relative  clause  with  is  is  often  equivalent  to  a substantive  : il  qui  au- 
diunt = auditores,  ‘ hearers.’ 

3.  Two  Eelatives  sometimes  occur  in  the  same  clause : 

Artes  quas  qui  tenent,  arts,  whose  possessors  (which  who  possess).  Cic. 

4.  A Eelative  Clause  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  the  Ablative  with^rd.* 

, Spero,  quae  tua  prudentia  est,  te  valere,  I hope  you  are  well,  such  is  your  prudence 
(which  is,  etc.).  Cic. 

Note.— Quae  tua  prudentia  est  = qua  es  prudentia  = pro  tua  prudentia,  means  such 
is  your  prudence,  or  you  are  of  such  prudence,  or  in  accordance  with  your  pru- 
dence, etc. 

5.  Eelative  with  Adjective. — Adjectives  belonging  in  sense  to  the  ante- 
cedent, especially  comparatives,  superlatives,  and  numerals,  sometimes  stand 
in  the  relative  clause  in  agreement  with  the  relative  : 

Vasa,  quae  pulcherrima  viderat,  the  most  beautiful  vessels  which  he  had  seen  (ves- 
sels, which  the  most  beautiful  he  had  seen).  Cic.  De  servis  suis,  quem  habuit  fidelissi- 
mum, misit,  he  sent  the  most  faithful  of  the  slaves  that  he  had.  Nep. 

6.  The  neuter,  quod,  used  as  an  adverbial  Accusative,  often  stands  at  the  beginning 


1 Of  the  general  or  indefinite  relative  quisquis. 


253 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 


of  a sentence  or  clause,  especially  before  s%  nisi,  etsl^  and  sometimes  before  quia^ 
quoniam^  utinam^  etc.,  to  indicate  a close  connection  with  what  precedes.  In  trans- 
lating it  is  sometimes  best  omitted,  and  sometimes  best  rendered  by  now.,  in  fact,  l>ut, 
and: 

Quod  si  ceciderint,  l)ut  if  they  should  fall.^  Cic.  Quod  si  ego  rescivissem  id  prius, 
now  if  I had  learned  this  sooner.  ^ Ter. 

7.  Qul  dicitur,  qul  vocatur,  or  the  corresponding  active,  quern  dlcunt,  quern  vocant, 
are  often  used  in  the  sense  of  so-called,  the  so-called,  what  they  or  you  call,  etc. : 

Vestra  quae  dicitur  vita,  mors  est,  your  so-called  life  (lit.,  your,  which  is  called 
life)  is  death.  Cic.  Lex  ista  quam  vocas  non  est  lex,  that  law,  as  you  call  it,  is  not  a 
law.  Cic. 

454.  Interrogative  Pronouns. — The  Interrogative  quis  is 
used  substantively  ; qul,  adjectively : 

Quis  ego  sum,  who  am  1?  Cic.  Quid  faciet,  what  will  he  dof  Cic  Qui 
vir  fuit,  what  kind  of  a man  was  he  f Cic. 

1.  Occasionally  quis  is  used  adjectively  and  qul  substantively : 

Quis  rex  unquam  fuit,  what  king  was  there  ever  ? Cic.  Qui  sis,  considera,  consider 
who  you  are.  Cic. 

Note.— The  neuter,  quid,  is  sometimes  used  of  persons;  see  397,  3,  note  5. 

2.  Quid,  why,  how  is  it  that,  etc.,  is  often  used  adverbially  (378,  2),  or  stands  ap- 
parently unconnected : ^ quid,  ‘why?’  ‘what?’  quid  enim,  ‘why  then?’  ‘what  then?’ 
‘what  indeed?’  quid  ita,  ‘why  so?’  quid  quod,  ‘what  of  the  fact  that?’  quid  si, 
‘ what  if?  ’ : 

Quid  venisti,  why  have  you  comet  Plant.  Quid  enim?  metusne  conturbet,  what 
then?  would  fear  disturb  us?  Cic.  Quid  quod  delectantur,  what  of  the  fact  that  the/y 
are  delighted  ? Cic. 

3.  Two  Intereogatives  sometimes  occur  in  the  same  clause  : 

Quis  quern  fraudavit,  who  defrauded,  and  whom  did  he  defraud  (lit.,  who  de- 
frauded whom)  ? Cic. 

4.  Tantus  sometimes  accompanies  the  interrogative  pronoun : 

Quae  fuit  unquam  in  ullo  homine  tanta  constantia,  was  there  ever  so  great  constancy 
in  any  man  ? Cic. 

^ 455.  Indefinite  Pronouns.^ — Aliquis,  quis,  qul,  and  quispiam, 
are  all  indefinite — some  one,  any  one : 

Est  aliquis,  there  is  some  one.  Liv.  Sensus  aliquis  esse  potest,  there  may 
be  some  sensation.  Cic.  Dixit  some  one  said.  Cic.  Si  quis  rex,  ^ 
king.  Cic.  Alia  res  quaepiam,  any  other  thing.  Cic. 

1.  Quis  and  qul  are  used  chiefly  after  si,  nisi,  ne,  and  num.  Aliquis  and  quis  are 
generally  used  substantively,  aliqul  and  qul  adjectively.  Aliquis  and  aliqul  after  si, 
nisi,  etc.,  are  emphatic: 

SI  est  aliqul  sensus  in  morte,  if  there  is  any  sensation  whatever  in  death.  Cic. 

2.  Nescio  quis  and  nescio  qul  often  supply  the  place  of  indefinite  pronouns  : 

1 Here  quod  refers  to  something  that  precedes,  and  means  in  reference  to  which,  in 
reference  to  this,  in  this  connection,  etc.  For  other  examples,  see  Caesar,  B.  G.,  I.,  14, 
and  VII.,  88. 

2 In  some  instances  quid  is  readily  explained  by  the  ellipsis  of  some  form  of  dlcO 
or  of  sum. 

3 For  a full  illustration  of  the  use  of  indefinite  pronouns,  see  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  87-103. 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 


253 


Nescid  quis  loquitur,  some  one  speaks  (lit.,  I know  not  who  speaks.,  or  one  speaks., 
I know  not  who).  Plaut.  Nescio  quid  mihi  animus  praesagit  mali,  my  mind  forebodes 
some  evil  (191,  note).  Ter. 

\ 456.  Quldam^  ‘a  certain  one,’  is  less  indefinite  than  aliquis: 
Quidam  rhetor  antiquus,  a certain  ancient  rhetorician.  Cic.  Accurrit  qui- 
dam, a certain  one  runs  up.  Hor. 


o 

\ 


1.  Quidam  with  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used  to  qualify  or  soften  the  statement: 

Justitia  mirifica  quaedam  justice  seems  somewhat  wonderful.  Cic. 

2.  Quidam  with  quasi.,  and  sometimes  without  it,  has  the  force  of  a certain.,  a kind 
of  as  it  tcere : 

Quasi  alumna  quaedam,  a certain  foster-child.,  as  it  were.  Cic. 

457.  Quisquam  and  ullus  are  used  chiefiy  in  negative  and  con- 
ditional sentences,  and  in  interrogative  sentences  implying  a nega- 
tive : 


Neque  me  quisquam  agnovit,  nor  did  any  one  recognize  me.  Cic.  Si  quis- 
quam, if  any  one.  Cic.  Num  censes  ullum  animal  esse,  do  you  thinh  there  is 
any  animal?  Cic. 

1.  Nemo  is  the  negative  of  quisquam.,  and  hke  quisquam  is  generally  used  substan- 
tively, rarely  adjecti vely : 

Neminem  laesit,  he  harmed  no  one.  Cic.  Nemo  poeta,  no  poet.  Cic. 

2.  Nullus  is  the  negative  of  ullus.,  and  is  generally  used  adjectively,  but  it  sometimes 
supplies  the  Genitive  and  Ablative  of  nemb,  which  generally  wants  those  cases : 

Nullum  animal,  no  animal.  Cic.  Nullius  aures,  the  ears  of  no  one.  Cic. 

3.  Nullus  and  nihil  are  sometimes  used  for  an  emphatic  non : 

> Nullus  venit,  he  did  not  come.  Cic.  Mortui  nulli  sunt,  the  dead  are  not.  Cic. 

\ 458.  Qulms^  qullihet.,  ^any  one  whatever,’ and  quisque.,  ‘every 
one,’  ‘ each  one,’  are  general  indefinites  (190): 

Quaelibet  res,  anything.  Cic.  Tuorum  quisque  necessariorum,  each  one 
of  your  friends.  Cic. 

1.  Quisque  with  superlatives  and  ordinals  is  generally  best  rendered  by  all,  or  by 
e/cer,  always  ; with  primus  by  very,  possible : 

Epicureos  doctissimus  quisque  contemnit,  all  the  most  learned  despise  the  Epicu- 
reans, or  the  most  learned  ever  despise,  etc.  Cic.  Primo  quoque  die,  the  earliest  day 


2.  Ut  quisque— ita  with  the  superlative  in  both  clauses  is  often  best  rendered,  the 
more— the  more : 

Ut  quisque  sibi  plurimum  confidit,  ita  maxime  excellit,  the  more  one  confides  in 
\ one's  self,  the  more  one  excels.  Cic. 

'iv  459.  Alius  means  ‘another,  other’ ; alter,  ‘the  one,’  ‘the  other’ 
(of  two),  ‘the  second,’  ‘a  second.^  They  are  often  repeated  : alius 
— alius,  one — another  ; alii — alii,  some — others  ; alter — alter,  the 
one — the  other  ; alterl — alterl,  the  one  party — the  other  : 

Legatos  alium  ab  alio  aggreditur,  he  tampers  with  the  ambassadors  one  after 
another.  Sail.  Alii  gloriae  serviunt,  alii  pecuniae,  some  are  slaves  to  glory, 
others  to  money.  Cic.  Quidquid  negat  alter,  et  alter,  whatever  one  denies,  the 


254 


AGREEMENT  OF  VERBS, 


other  denies.  Hor.  Alter  erit  Tiphys,  there  will  he  a second  Tiphys.  Verg. 
Tu  nunc  eris  alter  ab  illo,  you  will  now  he  next  after  him.  Verg.  Alteri 
dimicant,  alteri  timent,  one  party  contends.^  the  other  fears.  Cic. 

1.  Alius  or  alter  repeated  in  different  cases,  or  combined  with  alias  or  aliter often 
involves  an  ellipsis : 

Alius  alia  via  civitatem  auxerunt,  they  advanced  the  state.,  one  in  one  way.,  another 
in  another.  Liv.  Aliter  alii  vivunt,  some  lire  in  one  way.,  others  in  another.  Cic. 

2.  After  alius.,  aliter.,  and  the  like,  atque.,  dc.,  and  et  often  mean  than : 

Non  alius  essem  atque  sum,  I would  not  he  other  than  1 am.  Cic. 

3.  When  alter— alter  refer  to  objects  previously  mentioned,  the  first  alter  usually 
refers  to  the  latter  object,  but  may  refer  to  either : 

Inimicus,  competitor,  cum  altero— cum  altero,  an  enemy.,  a rival.,  with  the  latter — 
with  the  former.  Cic. 

4.  Uterque  means  hofh.,  each  of  two.  In  the  plural  it  generally  means  both.,  each  of 
two  parties.,  but  sometimes  both.,  each  of  inuo  pe/rsons  or  things;  regularly  so  with  nouns 
which  are  plural  in  form  but  singular  in  sense : 

Utrique  victoriam  crudeliter  exercebant,  both  parties  made  a cruel  use  of  victory 
Sail.  Palmas  utrasque  tetendit,  he  extended  both  his  hands.  Verg. 


OHAPTEE  V. 

SYNTAX  OF  VERBS. 

SECTION  I. 

AGREEMENT  OF  VERBS.— USE  OF  VOICES. 

RULiE  XXXVI.— Agreement  of  Verb  with  Subject. 

460.  A finite  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  numbee 
and  PEESON : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  world.  Cic.  Ego  reges 
ejeci,  vos  tyrannos  introducitis,  I have  banished  Icings.,  you  introduce  ty- 
rants. Cic. 

1.  Participles  in  Compound  Tenses  agree  with  the  subject  according 
to  438.  See  also  301,  1 and  2 : 

Thebani  accusati  sunt,  the  Thebans  were  accused.  Cic. 

Note  1. — In  the  compound  forms  of  the  Infinitive,  the  participle  in  um  sometimes 
occurs  without  any  reference  to  the  gender  or  number  of  the  subject: 

Diffidentia  futurum  quae  imperavisset,  from  doubt  that  those  things  which  he  had 
commanded  would  take  place.  Sail. 

Note  2.— A General  or  Indefinite  subject  is  often  denoted— 

1)  By  the  First  or  Third  Person  Plural,  and  in  the  Subjunctive  by  the  Second  Person 


A OB'jyElSBSiy^Q c:;  255 

Singular:  dicimus^  ‘we  (^people)  say’;  dicunt^  ‘they  say’;  dlcds^  ‘you  {any  one)  may 
fcay’: 

SI  beat!  esse  volumus,  if  we  wish  to  he  happy.  Cic.  Agere  quod  agas  considerate 
decet,  you  {one)  should  do  considerately  whatever  you  do  {one  does).  Cic. 

2)  By  an  Impersonal  Passive: 

Ad  faniim  concurritur,  they  rush  to  the  temple.  Cic.  Nisi  cum  virtute  vivatur,  un- 
less they  live  (unless  one  lives)  virtuously.  Cic. 

Note  3.— For  the  Pronominal  Subject  contained  in  the  verb,  see  368,  2. 

Note  4.— For  the  Omission  op  the  Yerb,  see  368,  8. 

461.  Synesis. — Sometimes  the  predicate  is  construed  accord- 
ing to  the  rmZ  meaning  of  the  subject  without  regard  to  grammat- 
ical gender  or  number.  Thus — 

1.  With  collective  nouns,  pars.,  multitudo.,  and  the  like  : 

Multitudo  aheunt,  the  multitude  depart.  Liv.  Pars  per  agros  dilapsi,  a 
part  (some)  dispersed  through  the  fields.  Liv. 

Note  1. — Here  multitudo  and  though  singular  and  feminine  in  form,  are  plu- 
ral and  masculine  in  sense ; see  also  438,  6.  Conversely,  the  Imperative  singular  may  be 
used  in  addressing  a multitude  individually: 

Adde  defectionena  Siciliae,  add  (to  this,  soldiers)  the  revolt  of  Sicily.  Liv. 

Note  2.— Of  two  verbs  with  the  same  collective  noun,  the  formeris  often  singular, 
and  the  latter  plural : 

Juventus  ruit  certantque,  the  youth  rush  forth  and  contend.  Yerg. 

2.  With  milia.,  often  masculine  in  sense  : 

Caesi  sunt  tria  milia,  three  thousand  men  were  slain.  Liv. 

3.  With  quisque.,  uterque.,  alius — alium.,  alter — alterum.,  and  the  like : 

Uterque  educunt,  they  each  lead  out,  Caes.  Alter  alterum  videmus,  we 

see  each  other.  Cic. 

4.  With  singular  subjects  accompanied  by  an  Ablative  with  cum : 

Dux  cum  principibus  capiuntur,  the  leader  with  his  chiefs  is  taken,  Liv. 

Quid  hue  tantum  hominum  (=  tot  homines)  ineedunt,  why  are  so  many  men 
coming  hither?  Plaut.  See  also  438,  6. 

5.  With  — partim  in  the  sense  oi pars — pars: 

Bonorum  partim  necessaria,  partim  non  necessaria  sunt,  of  good  things 
some  are  necessary.,  others  are  not  necessary.  Cic. 

462.  Sometimes  the  verb  agrees,  not  with  its  subject,  but  with 
an  Appositi  YE  or  with  a Predicate  Noun  : 

Volsinii,  oppidum  Tuscorum,  concrematum  est,  Volsinii.,  a town  of  the 
Tuscans.,  was  burned.  Plin.  Non  omnis  error  stultitia  est  dicenda,  not  every 
error  should  be  called  folly.  Cic.  Pueri  Trojanum  dicitur  agmen,  the  hoys  are 
called  the  Trojan  band.  V erg. 

Note  1. — The  verb  regularly  agrees  with  the  appositive  when  that  is  vrbs,  oppidum, 
or  clvitds,  in  apposition  with  plural  names  of  places,  as  in  the  first  example. 

Note  2. — The  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate  noun  when  that  is  nearer  or  more  eio» 
phatic  than  the  subject,  as  in  the  second  example. 


356 


AGREEMENT  OF  VERBS. 


Note  3. — The  verb  sometimes  Hgrees  with  a noun  in  a subordinate  clause  after  quam, 
nisi,  etc. : 

Ni^'Snud  nisi  pax  quaesita  est,  nothing  hut  peace  was  sought.  Cic. 

Vf463;  With  TWO  OR  MORE  SUBJECTS  the  verb  agrees— 

^/ir  With  one  subject,  and  is  understood  with  the  others : 

Aut  mores  spectari  aut  fortuna  solet,  either  character  or  fortune  is  wont  to 
he  regarded.  Cic.  Homerus  fuit  et  Hesiodus  ante  Romam  conditam,  Homer 
and  Hesiod  lived  (were)  before  the  founding  of  Rome.  Cic. 

II.  With  all  the  subjects  conjointly,  and  is  accordingly  in» the  plural 
number : 

Lentulus,  Scipio  perierunt,  Lentulus  and  Scipio  perished.  Cic.  Ego  et 
Cicero  valemus,  Cicero  and  I are  well.  Cic.  Tu  et  Tullia  valetis,  you  and 
Tullia  are  well.  Cic. 

1.  With  SUBJECTS  DIFFERING  IN  PERSON,  the  Verb  tahcs  the  first  person 
rather  than  the  second,  and  the  second  rather  than  the  third ; see  examples. 

2.  For  Participles  in  Compound  Tenses,  see  439. 

3.  Two  Subjects  as  a Unit. — Two  singular  subjects  forming  in  sense  a 
unit  or  whole,  admit  a singular  verb  : 

Senatus  populusque  intellegit,  the  senate  and  people  (i.  e.,  the  state  as  a 
unit)  understand.  Cic.  Tempus  necessitasque  postulat,  time  and  necessity 
(i.  e.,  the  crisis)  demand.  Cic. 

4.  With  Aut  or  Nec. — When  the  subjects  connected  by  aut.,  vel.,  nec., 
neque  or  seu.,  differ  in  person.,  the  verb  is  usually  in  the  plural ; but  when  they 
are  of  the  same  person.,  the  verb  usually  agrees  with  the  nearest  subject: 

Haec  neque  ego  neque  tu  fecimus,  neither  you  nor  1 have  done  these  things. 
Ter.  Aut  Brutus  aut  Cassius  judicavit,  either  Brutus  or  Cassius  judged.  Cic. 


464.  Voices. — With  transitive  verbs,  a thought  may  at  the  pleas- 
ure of  the  writer  be  expressed  either  actively  or  passively.  But — 

I.  That  which  in  the  active  construction  would  be  the  object  must  be 
the  subject  in  the  passive ; and — 

II.  That  which  in  the  active  would  be  the  subject  must  be  put  in  the  Abla- 
tive with  d or  ab  iov persons.,  and  in  the  Ablative  alone  for  things  (415, 1. ; 420) : 

Deus  omnia  constituit.  Cod  ordained  all  things.  A Deo  omnia  constituta 
sunt,  all  things  were  ordained  by  Cod.  Cic.  Del  providentia  mundum  ad- 
ministrat, the  providence  of  Cod  rules  the  ivorld.  Del  providentia  mundus 
administratur,  the  world  is  ruled  by  the  providence  of  Cod.  Cic. 

465.  The  Passive  Voice,  like  the  Greek  Middle,  Vis  sometimes 
equivalent  to  the  Active  with  a reflexive  pronoun  : 

Lavantur  in  fluminibus,  they  bathe  (wash  themselves)  in  the  rivers^  Caes. 

1 Most  Passive  forms  once  had  both  a Middle  and  a Passive  meaning,  as  in  Greek; 
but  in  Latin  the  Middle  or  Reflexive  meaning  has  nearly  disappeared,  though  retained 
to  a certain  extent  in  special  verb§. 


TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE, 


257 


Non  hie  victoria  vertitur,  not  upon  this  point  (here)  does  victory  turn  (turn 
itself).  Verg. 

1.  Intransitive  Verbs  (193)  have  regularly  only  the  active  voice,  hut 
they  are  sometimes  used  impersonally  in  the  passive : 

Curritur  ad  praetorium,  they  run  to  the  praetorium  (it  is  run  to).  Cic. 
Mihi  cum  iis  vivendum  est,  I must  live  with  them.  Cic. 

Note. — Verbs  which  are  usually  intransitive  are  occasionally  used  transitively,,  es- 
pecially in  poetry : 

Ego  cur  invideor,  why  am  I envied  f Ilor. 

2.  Deponent  Verbs,  though  passive  in  form,  are  in  signification  transitive 
or  intransitive : 

Illud  mirabar,  I admired  that,  Cic.  Ab  urbe  proficisci,  to  set  out  from 
the  city.  Caes. 

Note  1.— Originally  many  deponent  verbs  seem  to  have  had  the  force  of  the  Greek 
Middle  voice  : gllrior^  ‘I  boast  myself,’  ‘ I boast’ ; vescor,,  ‘ I feed  myself.’ 

Note  2.— Semi-Deponents  have  some  of  the  active  forms  and  some  of  the  passive, 
without  change  of  meaning  ; see  ^68,  8. 

SECTION  II. 

THE  INDICATIVE  AND  ITS  TENSES. 


y I.  Present  Indicative. 

y 466.  The  Present  Indicative  represents  the  action  of  the  verb 
as  taking  place  at  the  present  time : 

Ego  et  Cicero  valemus,  Cicero  and  I are  well.  Cic.  Hoc  te  rogo,  lash  you 
for  this.  Cic. 

Note. — The  Present  of  the  Active  Periphrastic  Conjugation  denotes  an  intended  oi 
future  action ; that  of  the  Passive,  2i  present  necessity  or  duty : 

Bellum  scripturus  sum,  I intend  to  write  the  history  of  the  war.^  Sail.  Legenduu 

est  hie  orator,  this  orator  ought  to  he  read.^  Cic. 

/ 

f 467.  Hence  the  Present  Tense  is  used— 

I.  Of  actions  and  events  which  are  actually  taking  place  at  the  present 
time,  as  in  the  above  examples. 

II.  Of  actions  and  events  which,  as  belonging  to  all  time,  belong  of 
course  to  the  present,  as  general  truths  and  customs : 


Nihil  est  amabilius  virtute,  nothing  is  more  lovely  than  virtue.  Cic. 
Fortes  fortima  adjuvat,/or^^^?^e  helps  the  brave.  Ter. 

III.  Of  past  actions  and  events  which  the  writer  wishes,  for  effect,  to  \ 
picture  before  the  reader  as  present.  The  Present,  when  so  used,  is  called 
the  Historical  Present : 

1 Scripturus  sum  may  be  variously  rendered,  I intend  to  write,,  am  about  to  write,, 
am  to  write,,  am  destined  to  write,,  etc. ; legendus  est  means  he  ought  to  he  read,  de 
ierves  to  he  read,  must  be  read,  etc. 

18 


258 


TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE. 


Jugurtha  vallo  moenia  circumdat,  Jugurtha  surrounded  the  city  with  a 
rampart.  Sail. 

1.  The  Historical  Present  is  used  much  more  freely  in  Latin  than  in 
English.  It  is  therefore  generally  best  rendered  by  a past  tense. 

2.  The  Present  is  often  used  of  a present  action  which  has  been  going  on 
for  some  time,  especially  after  jamdiu,  jamdudum^  etc. : 

Jamdiu  ignoro  quid  agas,  lhave  not  known  for  a long  time  what  you  have 
been  doing.  Cic. 

3.  The  Present  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  may  be  used  of  authors  whose 
works  are  extant : 

Xenophon  facit  Socratem  disputantem,  Xenophon  represents  Socrates  dis- 
cussing, Cic. 

■jL  4.  With  dum.^  ‘while,’  the  Present  is  generally  used,  whether  the  action 
is  present,  past,  or  future : 

Hum  ea  parant, ^ Saguntum  oppugnabatur,  while  they  were  (are)  making 
these  preparations.,  Saguntum  was  attacked.  Liv.  Dum  haec  geruntur,  Cae- 
sari nuntiatum  est,  while  these  things  were  taking  place.,  it  was  announced  to 
Caesar.  Caes. 

XoTE. — But  with  dum.,  meaning  as  long  as,  the  Present  can  be  used  only  of  present 
time. 

5.  The  Present  is  sometimes  used  of  an  action  really  future,  especially  in 
animated  discourse  and  in  conditions  : 

Quam  prendimus  arcem,  what  stronghold  do  loe  seize.,  or  are  we  to  seize  f V erg. 
Si  vincimus,  omnia  tuta  erunt,  if  we  conquer.,  all  things  will  he  safe.  Sail. 

6.  The  Present  is  sometimes  used  of  an  attempted  or  intended  action : 

Virtutem  accendit,  he  tries  to  kindle  their  valor.  Verg.  Quid  me  terreS; 

why  do  you  try  to  terrify  me?  Verg. 


II.  Imperfect  Indicative. 

468.  The  Imperfect  Indicative  represents  the  action  as  taking 
place  in  past  time  : 


Stabant  nobilissimi  juvenes,  there  stood  (were  standing)  most  noble  youths. 
Liv.  Colies  oppidum  cingebant,  hills  encompassed  the  town.  Caes.  Moturus 
exercitum  erat,  he  was  intending  to  move  his  army.  Liv. 

Note. — For  the  Imperfect  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations  in  conditional  sentences, 
see  511,  2 


469.  Hence  the  Imperfect  is  used  especially — 


I.  In  lively  description.,  whether  of  scenes  or  events : 

Ante  oppidum  planities  patebat,  before  the  town  extended  a plain.  Caes, 
Fulgentes  gladios  videbant,  they  saw  (were  seeing)  the  gleaming  swords,  Cic. 

II.  Of  customary  or  repeated  actions  and  events,  often  rendered  was 
wo7it^  etc. ; 


1 Here  the  time  denoted  by  parant  is  present  relatively  to  oppugnabatur.,  and  there 
fore  really  past. 


TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE, 


25& 


Pausanias  epulabatur  more  Persarum,  Pausanias  was  wont  to  banquet  in 
the  Persian  style.  Kep. 

1.  The  fmpeifect  is  sometimes  used  of  an  attempted  or  intended  action :  *  * 

Sedabant  tumultus,  they  attempted  to  quell  the  seditions.  Liv. 

% The  Imperfect  is  often  used  of  a past  action  which  had  been  going  on 
for  some  time,  especially  jamdiu^  jamdudum.,  etc.  : ^ 

Domicilium  Romae  multos  jam  annos  habebat,  he  had  already  for  many 
years  had  his  residence  at  Rome.  Cic. 

3.  The  Latin  sometimes  uses  the  Imperfect  where  the  English  requires  the 
Present : ^ 

Pastum  animantibus  natura  eum  qui  cuique  aptus  erat,  comparavit,  nature 
has  prepared  for  animals  that  food  which  is  adapted  to  each.  Cic. 

Note  l.—For  the  Imperfect  in  Letters,  see  4 73, 1. 

Note  2.— For  the  Descriptive  Imperfect  in  Narration,  see  471,  6. 

Note  3.— For  the  Historical  Tenses  in  expressions  of  Duty,  Propriety,  Necessity, 
etc.,  see  476,  4. 

III.  Future  Indicative. 

^^470.  The  Future  Indicative  represents  the  action  as  one  which 
will  take  place  in  future  time  : 

Scribam  ad  te,  I shall  write  to  you.  Cic.  Nunquam  aberrabimus,  we  shall 
never  go  astray.  Cic. 

1.  In  Latin,  as  in  English,  the  Future  Indicative  sometimes  has  the  force  of 
an  Imperative : 

Curabis  et  scribes,  you  will  take  care  and  write.  Cic. 

2.  Actions  which  really  belong  to  future  time  are  almost  invariably  ex- 
pressed by  the  Future  tense,  though  sometimes  put  in  the  Present  in  English : 

Naturam  si  sequemur,  nunquam  aberrabimus,  if  we  follow  nature.^  we  shall 
never  go  astray.  Cic. 


IV.  Peefect  Indicative. 

471.  The  Perfect  Indicative  has  two  distinct  uses : 

As  the  Present  Perfect  or  Perfect  Definite,  it  represents 
the  action  as  at  present  completed^  and  is  rendered  by  our  Perfect 
with  hare : 

De  genere  belli  dixi,  I have  spoken  of  the  character  of  the  war.  Cic. 

II.  As  the  Historical  Perfect  or  Perfect  Indefinite,  it  rep- 
resents the  action  simply  as  an  historical  fact : 

1 Observe  that  the  peculiarities  of  the  Present  reappear  in  the  Imperfect.  This  arises 
from  the  fact  that  these  two  tenses  are  precisely  alike  in  representing  the  action  in  its 
progress.,  and  that  they  differ  only  in  time.  The  one  views  the  action  in  the  present,  the 
Other  transfers  it  to  the  past. 

* This  occurs  occasionally  in  the  statement  of  general  truths  and  in  the  description 
of  natural  scenes,  but  in  such  cases  the  truth  or  the  scene  is  viewed  not  from  the  present 
but  from  the  past. 


m 


TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE. 


Miltiades  est  accusatus,  Miltiades  was  accused.  Nep.  Quid  facturi  fuistis, 
what  did  you  intend  to  do.^  or  what  would  you  have  done?  Cic. 

Note.— For  the  Perfect  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations  in  conditional  sentences,  see 
476, 1. 

^ 1.  The  Perfect  is  sometimes  -used — 

^1)  Instead  of  the  Present  to  denote  the  suddenness  of  the  action : 

Terra  tremit,  mortalia  corda  stravit  pavor,  the  earth  trembles^  fear  over- 
whelms (has  overwhelmed)  the  hearts  of  mortals.  Verg. 

2)  To  contrast  VnQ  past  with  the  present.,  implying  that  what  was  true  then 
is  not  true  now : 

Habuit,  non  habet,  he  had.,  but  has  not.  Cic.  Fuit  Ilium,  Ilium  ivas.  Verg. 

2.  The  Perfect  Indicative  with  paene.,  prope.,  may  often  be  rendered  by 
might.,  would.,  or  by  the  Pluperfect  Indicative : 

Brutum  n5n  minus  amo,  paene  dixl.,  quam  te,  / love  Brutus  not  less.,  I 
might  almost  say.,  or  I had  almost  said.,  than  Hove  you.  Cic. 

^ 3.  The  Latin  sometimes  employs  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  where  the 
English  uses  the  Present  and  Imperfect,  especially  in  repeated  actions,  and 
in  verbs  which  want  the  Present  (297) : 

Meminit  praeteritorum,  he  remembers  i the  past.  Cic.  Cum  ad  villam  veni, 
hoc  me  delectat,  when  I come  (have  come)  to  a villa.,  this  pleases  me.  Cic. 
Memineram  Paullum,  I remembered  Paullus.  Cic. 

4.  Conjunctions  meaning  as  soon  as'^  are  usually  followed  by  the  Perfect; 
sometimes  by  the  Imperfect  or  Historical  Present.  But  the  Pluperfect  is 
sometimes  used,  especially  to  denote  the  result  of  a completed  action : 

Postquam  cecidit  Ilium,  after  (as  soon  as)  Ilium  fell.,  or  had  fallen.  Verg. 
His  ubi  natum  prosequitur  s dictis,  when  he  had  addressed  his  son  loith  these 
words.  Verg.  Posteaquam  consul  fuerat,  after  he  had  been  consul.^  Cic. 
Anno  tertio  postquam  profugerat,  in  the  third  year  after  he  had  fled.  Nep. 

5.  In  Subordinate  Clauses  after  cum  (quum),  si,  etc.,  the  Perfect  is  some- 
times used  of  Repeated  Actions,  General  Truths,  and  Customs  : s 

Cum  ad  villam  veni,  hoc  me  delectat,  whenever  I come  (have  come)  to  a 
villa.,  this  delights  me.  Cic. 

Note. — In  such  cases  the  principal  clause  generally  retains  the  Present,  as  in  the 
example  just  given,  but  in  poetry  and  in  late  prose  it  sometimes  admits  the  Perfect 

Tulit  punctum  qui  miscuit  utile  dulci,  he  loins  (has  favor  who  combines  (has 
combined)  the  useful  with  the  agreeable.  Hor. 

6.  In  Animated  Narrative,  the  Perfect  usually  narrates  the  leading  events, 
and  the  Imperfect  describes  the  attendant  circumstanees : 

Cultum  mutavit,  veste  Medica  utebatur,  epulabatur  mOre  Persarum,  he 
changed  his  mode  of  life.,  used  the  Median  dress.,  feasted  in  the  Persian  style. 

1 Literally,  has  recalled.,  and  so  remembers,  as  the  result  of  the  act.  The  Latin  pre« 
sents  the  completed  act.  the  English  the  result. 

2 As  postquam.,  ub\  ubl  prlmum^  ut.,  utprimum,  simul  atque  (ac),  etc. 

3 Historical  present;  lit.,  when  he  attends. 

4 And  so  was  then  a man  of  consular  rank. 

® This  use  of  the  Latin  Perfect  corresponds  to  the  Gnomic  Aorist  in  Greek 


TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE. 


261 


Nep.  Se  in  oppida  receperunt  mtirlsque  se  tenebant,  tlieij  hetooh  themselves 
into  their  towns  and  hept  themselves  within  their  walls.  Liv. 

Note  1— The  Compound  Tenses  in  the  Passive  often  denote  the  result  of  the  action. 
Thus,  doctus  est  may  mean  either  he  has  been  instructed^  or  he  is  a learned  man  (lit., 
an  instructed-  man) : 

Fuit  doctus  ex  disciplina  Stoicorum,  he  was  instructed  in  (lit.,  out  of)  the  learning 
of  the  Stoics.  Cic.  Navis  parata  fuit,  the  vessel  was  ready  (lit.,  was  prepared).  Liv. 

Note  2.— For  the  Perfect  in  Letters,  see  473,  1. 

Note  3. — For  the  Historical  Tenses  in  expressions  of  Duty,  Propriety,  Necessity. 
etc.,  see  476,  4. 

V.  Pluperfect  Indicative. 

'y  472.  The  Pluperfect  Indicative  represents  the  action  as  com- 
pleted at  some  past  time  : 

Pyrrhi  temporibus  jam  Apollo  versus  facere  desierat,  in  the  times  of  Pyr- 
rhus Apollo  had  already  ceased  to  make  verses.^  Cic.  Copias  quas  pro  castris 
collocaverat,  reduxit,  he  led  lack  the  forces  which  he  had  stationed  before  the 
camp.  Caes.  Cum  esset  Demosthenes,  multi  oratores  clari  fuerunt  et  antea 
fuerant,  when  Demosthenes  lived  there  were  many  illustrious  orators.^  and  there 
had  been  before.  Cic. 

1.  In  Letters,  the  writer  often  adapts  the  tense  to  the  time  of  the  reader, 
using  the  Imperfect  or  Perfect  of  present  actions  and  events,  and  the  Pluper- 
fect of  those  which  are  past : 2 

Nihil  habebam  quod  scriberem ; ad  tuas  omnes  epistulas  rescripseram 
I have  (had)  nothing  to  write  ; I replied  to  all  your  letters  yesterday. 
Cic.  Pridie  Idus  haec  scripsi ; eo  die  3 apud  Pomponium  eram  cenaturus,^ 
I write  this  on  the  day  before  the  Ides  ; lam  going  to  dine  to-day  ivith  Pom- 
ponius. Cic. 

2.  The  Pluperfect  after  cum.,  si.,  etc. , is  often  used  of  Eepeated  Actions, 
General  Truths,  and  Customs  : ® 

Si  hostAs  deterrere  nequiverant  circumveniebant,  if  they  were  (had  been) 
unable^  to  deter  the  enemy.,  they  surrounded  them.  Sail. 

Note  1.— For  the  Pluperfect  in  the  sense  of  the  English  Imperfect,  see  471,  3. 

' Note  2.— For  the  Historical  Tenses  in  expressions  of  Duty,  Propriety,  Necessity. 
etc.,  see  476,  4. 

1 Observe  that  desierat  represents  the  action  as  already  completed  at  the  time  desig- 
nated. 

2 This  change  is  by  no  means  uniformly  made,  but  is  subject  to  the  pleasure  of  the 
writer.  It  is  most  common  near  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  letters. 

3 Observe  that  the  adverbs  and  the  adverbial  expressions  are  also  adapted  to  the  time 
of  the  reader.  ZTcpi,  ‘yesterday,’  becomes  to  the  reader  pridie.,  ‘the  day  before  ’ — i.  e., 
the  day  before  the  writing  of  the  letter.  In  the  same  way  hodie,  ‘ to-day,’  ‘ this  day,’  be- 
comes to  the  reader  ed  die,  ‘that  day.’ 

^ The  Imperfect  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugation  is  sometimes  thus  used  of  future 
events  which  are  expected  to  happen  before  the  receipt  of  the  letter.  Events  which  will 
be  future  to  the  reader  as  well  as  to  the  writer  must  be  expressed  by  the  Future. 

® See  the  similar  use  of  the  Perfect,  471,  5. 

® That  is,  whenever  they  were  unable. 


262 


USE  OF  INDICATIVE. 


> , VI.  Future  Perfect  Indicative. 

A # 

T473.  The  Future  Perfect  Indicative  represents  the  action  as 
^one  which  will  be  completed  at  some  future  time: 

" . Komam  cum  venero,  scribam  ad  te,  when  I shall  have  reached  Rome.,  I will 
write  to  you.  Gic.  Dum  tu  haec  leges,  ego  ilium  fortasse  convenero,  when 
you  read  this.,  I shall  perhaps  have  already  met  him.  Gic. 

i.  The  Future  Perfect  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  complete  accom 
i plishment  of  the  work : 

Ego  meum  officium  praestitero,  I shall  discharge  my  duty.  Gaes. 

*^2.  The  Future  Perfect  is  sometimes  found  in  conditional  clauses  where 
H^use  the  Present : 

Si  interpretari  potuero,  his  verbis  utitur,  if  I can  (shall  have  been  able 
to)  understand  him.,  he  uses  these  words.  Gic. 


VII.  Use  of  the  Indicative. 

RULE  XXXVIl.— Indicative. 


i74.  The  Indicative  is  used  in  treating  of  facts 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  world.  Gic, 
pulsus  est  patria,  was  he  not  banished  from  his  eountry  i Gic. 
dum  licuit,  I did  this  as  long  as  it  was  permitted.  Gic. 


Nonne 
Hoc  fed 


475.  The  Indicative  is  thus  used  in  treating  of  facts — 

I.  In  Principal  Clauses^  whether  Declarative  as  in  the  first  example 
or  Interrogative  as  in  the  second. 

II.  In  Subordinate  Clauses.  Thus — 

1.  In  Relative  Clauses: 

Dixit  id  quod  dignissimum  re  publica  fuit,  he  stated  that  which  was  most 
worthy  of  the  republic.  Gic.  Quicquam  bonum  est,  quod  non  eum  qui  id 
possidet  meliorem  facit,  is  anything  good  which  does  not  make  him  better  who 
possesses  it  f Gic. 

Note.— For  the  Subjunctive  in  Relative  Clauses,  see  497;  500;  503;  507,  2,  etc. 

2.  In  Conditional  Clauses: 


Si  haec  civitas  est,  civis  sum  ego,  if  this  is  a state.,  I am  a eitizen.  Gic. 
Note  1, — For  the  special  uses  of  the  Indicative  in  Conditional  Sentences,  see  508. 
Note  2.— For  the  Subjunctive  in  Conditional  Sentences^  see  509;  510. 

3.  In  Concessive  Clauses: 

Quamquam  intellegunt,  tamen  nunquam  dicunt,  although  they  understand.^ 
they  never  speak.  Gic. 

Noth.— For  the  Subjunctive  in  Concessive  Clauses,  see  515. 


1 Includiug,  of  course,  all  simple  sentences. 


USE  OF  INDICATIVE. 


263 


4.  In  Causal  Clauses: 

Quoniam  supplicatio  decreta  est,  since  a thanksgiving  has  been  decreed.  Cic. 
Quia  honore  digni  habentur,  because  they  are  deemed  worthy  of  honor.  Curt. 

Note.— For  the  Subjimctive  in  Causal  Clauses,  see  516;  517. 

5.  In  Temporal  Clauses : 

Cum  quiescunt,  probant,  while  they  are  silent  they  approve.  Cic.  Prius- 
.^uam  lucet,  adsunt,  they  are  present  before  it  is  light.  Cic. 

Note. — For  the  Subjunctive  in  Temporal  Clauses,  see  519;  520;  521. 

476.  Special  Uses. — The  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  where 
our  idiom  would  suggest  the  Subjunctive : 

1.  The  Indicative  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations  is  often  so  used  in 
the  historical  tenses,  especially  in  conditional  sentences  (511,  2); 

Haec  condicio  non  accipienda  fuit,  this  condition  should  not  have  been  ac» 
cepted.  Cic. 

2.  The  Historical  Tenses  of  the  Indicative^  particularly  the  Pluperfect.^ 
are  sometimes  used  for  effect.,  to  represent  as  an  actual  fact  something 
which  is  shown  by  the  context  never  to  have  become  fully  so : 

Vicertous,  nisi  recepisset  Antonium,  we  should  have  (lit.,  had)  conquered^ 
had  he  not  received  Antony.  Cic.  See  511,  1. 

3.  Pronouns  and  Relative  Adverbs.,  made  general  by  being  doubled  or  by 
assuming  the  suffix  cumque  (187,  3),  take  the  Indicative : 

Quisquis  est,  is  est  sapiens,  whoever  he  is.,  he  is  wise.  Cic.  Hoc  ultimum, 
utcunque  initum  est,  proelium  fuit,  this,  however  it  was  commenced,  was  the 
last  battle.  Liv.  Quidquid  oritur,  qualecumque  est,  causam  habet,  whatever 
comes  into  being,  of  whatever  character  it  may  be  (lit.,  is),  it  has  a cause.  Cic. 

4.  In  expressions  of  Duty,  Propriety,  Necessity,  Ability,  and  the  like, 
the  Latin  often  uses  the  Indicative,  chiefly  in  the  historical  tenses,  in  a 
manner  somewhat  at  variance  with  the  English  idiom : 

Non  suscipi  bellum  oportuit,  the  war  should  not  have  been  undertaken.'^ 
Liv.  Eum  contumeliis  onerasti,  quem  colere  debebas,  you  have  loaded  with 
insults  one  whom  you  should  have  (ought  to  have)  revered.  Cic.  MultOs  pos- 
sum bonOs  virOs  nOminare,  I might  name  (lit.,  / am  able  to  name)  many  good 
men.  Cic.  Hanc  mecum  poteras  requiescere  noctem,  you  might  rest  (might 
have  rested)  with  me  this  night.  V erg. 

5.  The  Indicative  of  the  verb  sum  is  often  used  with  longum,  aequum, 
wequius,  difficile,  justum,  melius,  par,  utilius,  etc.,  in  such  expressions  as 
longum  est,  ‘ it  would  be  tedious,’  melius  erat,  ‘ it  would  have  been  better  ’ : 

Longum  est  persequi  utilitates,  it  would  be  tedious  (is  a long  task)  to  re- 
count the  uses.  Cic.  Melius  fuerat,  prOmissum  nOn  esse  servatum,  it  would 
have  been  better  that  the  promise  should  not  have  been  kept.  Cic. 

1 Literally,  it  was  fitting  or  proper  that  the  war  should  not  be  undertakm. 


264 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


SECTION  III. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE 
AND  ITS  TENSES. 

477.  The  Latin  Subjunctive  ^ has  two  principal  uses— 

I.  It  may  represent  an  action  as  willed  or  desiked  : 

Amemus  patriam,  let  us  love  our  country.  Cic. 

II.  It  may  represent  an  action  as  pkobable  or  possible  \ 

Quaerat  quispiam,  some  one  may  inquire,  Cic. 

478.  Tenses  in  the  Subjunctive  do  net  designate  the  time  of 
the  action  so  definitely  as  in  the  Indicative. 

479.  The  Present  Subjunctive  in  principal  clauses  ^ embraces 
in  a vague  and  general  manner  hoiYi pi^esent  future  time:  ® 

Amemus  patriam,  let  us  love  our  country  (now  and  ever).  Cio.  Quaerat 
quispiam,  some  one  may  (or  will)  inquire  (at  any  time).  Cic. 

480.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  in  principal  clauses  relates 
sometimes  to  the  ^ast  and  sometimes  to  the  'present : 

Crederes  victos,  vanquished,  you  would  have  thought  them.  Liv.  Utinam 
possem,  would  that  I were  able  (now).  Cic. 

481.  The  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  principal  clauses  relates 
sometimes  to  the  past.^  but  more  frequently  to  the  present  or  fu- 
ture : 

1 The  Latin  Subjunctive,  it  will  be  remembered  (p.  IIT,  foot-note  4),  contains  the 
forms  and  the  meaning  of  two  kindred  moods,  the  Subjunctive  proper,  and  the  Optative. 
In  Latin,  the  forms  characteristic  of  these  two  moods,  used  without  any  difference  of  mean- 
ing, are  made  to  supplement  each  other.  Thus,  in  the  Present,  the  Optative  forms 
fire  found  in  the  First  Conjugation,  and  the  Subjunctive  forms  in  the  Second,  Third,  and 
Fourth.  In  their  origin  they  are  only  special  developments  of  certain  forms  of  the  Pres- 
ent Indicative,  denoting  continued  and  attempted  action.  From  this  idea  of  atteiwpted 
action  was  readily  developed  on  the  one  hand  desire.,  will,  as  we  attempt  only  what  we 
desire,  and  on  the  other  hand  probability,  possibility,  as  we  shall  very  likely  accomplish 
what  we  are  already  attempting.  These  two  meanings,  united  in  one  word,  lie  at  the 
basis  of  all  Subjunctive  constructions  in  Latin.  On  the  origin,  history,  and  use  of  the 
Subjunctive,  see  Delbriick,  ‘ Conjunctiv  und  Optativ’;  Curtius,  ‘Verbum,’  II.,  pp.  55-95; 
Draeger,  II.,  pp.  439-743;  Roby,  II.,  pp.  202-348;  also  a paper  by  the  author  on  ‘The 
Development  of  the  Latin  Subjunctive  in  Principal  Clauses,’  Transactions  Am.  Phil. 
Assoc.,  1879. 

2 For  the  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Subordinate  clauses,  see  490. 

3 The  Present  Subjunctive  in  its  origin  is  closely  related  both  in  form  and  in  meaning 
to  the  Future  Indicative.  Thus,  in  the  Third  and  Fourth  Conjugations,  no  future  forms 
for  the  Indicative  have  been  developed,  but  Subjunctive  and  Optative  forms  supply  their 
place,  as  regam,  audiam  (Subjunctive),  and  reges,  reget,  etc.,  and  audies,  audiet,  etC' 
(Optative). 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  DESIRE. 


265 


Fuerit  malus  civis,  lie  may  have  "been  (admit  that  lie  was)  a had  citizen.  Cio. 
Ne  transieris  1 Iberum,  do  not  cross  the  Ehro  (now  or  at  any  time).  Liv. 

482.  The  Pluperfect  Subjunctiye  in  principal  clauses  re- 
lates to  the  past : 

Utinam  potuissem,  would  that  I had  been  able.  Cic. 

SECTION  IV. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  PRINCIPAL  CLAUSES. 

« 

RULE  XXXVm.— Subjunctive  of  Desire,  Command. 

X483.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action 

NOT  AS  REAL,  but  AS  DESIRED  : 

Valeant  elves,  may  the  citizens  be  well.  Cic.  Amemus  patriam,  let  us 
LOVE  our  country.  Cic.  A nobis  diligatur let  him  be  loved  by  us.  Cic. 
Scribere  ne  pigrere.^  do  not  neglect  to  write.  Cic. 

1.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  often  accompanied  by  utinam.^  and  some- 
times, especially  in  the  poets,  by  si,  0 si : 

Utinam  conata  e£B.cere  possim,  may  I be  able  to  accomplish  my  endeavors. 
Cic.  Ut  ilium  di  perdant,  would  that  the  gods  would  destroy  him.  Ter. 

4 2.  Force  of  Tenses. — The  Present  and  Perfect  imply  that  the  wish  may 
be  fulfilled  ; the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  that  it  can  not  be  fulfilled : 

Sint  beat!,  may  they  be  happy.  Cic.  Ne  transieris  Iberum,  do  not  cross  the 
Ebro.  Liv.  Utinam  possem,  utinam  potuissem,  would  that  I were  able.,  would 
that  I had  been  able.  Cic. 

Note.— The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  may  often  he  best  rendered  should.,  should 
have.,  ought  to  have : 

Hoc  diceret,  he  should  have  said  this.  Cic.  Mortem  oppetiisses,  you  should  have 
met  death.  Cic. 

^ \,3.  Negatives. — "With  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire.,  the  negative  is  ne.,  rarely 
non  ; with  a connective,  ri^ve.,  neu.,  rarely  neque : 

Ne  audeant,  let  them  not  dare.  Cic.  Non  recedamus,  let  us  not  recede.  Cic. 
Ames  dici  pater,  neu  sinas,  etc.,  may  you  love  to  be  called  father.,  and  may  you 
not  permit.,  etc.  Hor.  Neve  minor  neu  sit  productior,  let  it  be  neither  shorter 
nor  longer.  Hor. 

Nedum.,  ‘ not  to  say,’  ‘much  less,’  is  used  with  the  Subjunctive : 

Vix  in  tectis  frigus  vitatur,  nedum  in  mari  sit  facile  abesse  ab  injuria,  the  cold  is 
avoided  with  difficulty  in  our  houses,  much  less  is  it  easy  to  escape  (to  be  absent  from) 
injury  on  the  sea.  Cic. 

4.  The  first  person  of  the  Subjunctive  is  often  found  in  earnest  or  solemn 
Affirmations  : 


1 Observe  that  the  Perfect  thus  used  does  not  at  all  differ  in  time  from  the  Present^ 
but  that  it  calls  attention  to  the  completion  of  the  action. 


266 


POTENTIAL  SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Moriar,  si  puto,  may  I die^  if  I think,  Cic.  Ne  sim  salvus,  si  scribO,  may  1 
not  be  safe,,  if  I write.  Cic.  Sollicitat,  ita  vivam,  as  I live.^  it  troubles  me.^  Cic. 

5.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  sometimes  used  in  Relative  Clauses  : 

Quod  faustum  sit,  regem  create,  elect  a king.^  and  may  it  be  an  auspicious 
event  (may  which  he  auspicious).  Liv.  Senectus,  ad  quam  utinam  pervenia- 
tis, old  age.,  to  which  may  you  attain.  Cic. 

Note. — For  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  in  Subordinate  Clauses,  see  486,  III.,  note, 
with  foot-note. 


6.  Modo.,  modo  we,  may  accompany  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  : 

Modo  Juppiter  adsit,  only  let  Jupiter  be  present.  Verg.  Modo  ne  laudent, 
on"^  let  them  not  praise.  Cic.  * 

^ 484.  The  Subjunctwe  of  Desire  may  be  in  meaning — 

A.  Optative,  as  in  prayers  and  wishes : 

Sint  beati,  may  they  be  happy.  Cic.  Di  bene  vertant,  may  the  gods  cause 
it  to  turn  out  well.  Plant. 

’ II.  Hortative,  as  in  exhortations  and  entreaties : 

Consulamus  bonis,  let  us  consult  for  the  good.  Cic. 

^ III.  Concessive,  as  in  admissiones  and  concessions : 

Fuerint  pertinaces,  grant  (or  admit)  that  they  were  obstinate.  Cic. 

IV.  Imperative,  as  in  mild  commands,  admonitions,  warnings,  etc.,  used 
chiefly  in  prohibitions  : 

Ilium  jocum  ne  sis  aspernatus,  do  not  despise  that  jest.  Cic.  Scribere  ne 
pigrere,  do  not  neglect  to  write.  Cic. 


Note  1. — In  prohibitions,  the  Perfect  tense  is  generally  used : 

Ne  transieris  Iberum,  do  not  cross  the  Ebro.  Liv. 

Note  2.— Except  in  prohibitions,  the  Second  Person  Singular  in  the  best  prose  is 
used  almost  exclusively  of  an  indefinite  you,  meaning  one,  any  one : 

Isto  bond  utare,  you  should  use  (i.  e.,  one  should  use)  that  advantage.  Cic. 

V.  Deliberative,  as  in  deliberative  questions,  to  ask  what  should  be : 


Huic  cedamus,  hujus  condiciones  audiamus,  shall  we  yield‘d  to  him,  shall 
we  listen  to  his  terms  f Cic.  Quid  facerem,  what  was  I to  do  Verg. 


RUIiE  XXXIX.— Potential  Subjunctive. 

485.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action 

NOT  AS  REAL,  but  AS  POSSIBLE  : 

Hie  quaerat  quispiam,  here  some  one  may  inquire.  CLc.  Ita  laudem  in- 
venias, thus  you  WILL  (or  may)  obtain  praise.  Ter.  Ita  amicos  pares,  thus 
YOU  will  make  friends.  Ter.  Vix  dicere  ausim,  1 should  scarcely  dare  to 


^ Here  ita  vlvam  means,  may  I so  live  (i.  e.,  may  I live  only  in  case  this  is  true). 
2 Or,  ought  we  to  yield,  is  it  your  wish  that  we  should  yield  f 
8 Or,  what  should  I have  done  ? 


POTENTIAL  SUBJUNCTIVE. 


267 


Bay.  Liv.  Crederes  victos,  vanquished  you  would  have  thought  them.  Liv. 
Forsitan  quaeratis,^  you  may  inquire.  Cic.  Hoc  nemo  dixerit,  no 

one  would  say  this.  Cic.  Quis  dubitet  (=  nemo  dubitat),  who  would  doubt 
(or  who  doubts  no  one  doubts)  ? Cic.  Hoc  quis  ferre  possit,  who  would 
he  able  to  endure  this  ? Cic. 

Note  1. — In  the  Potential  Subjunctive,  the  Perfect  often  has  nearly  the  same  force  as 
the  Present,  and  the  Imperfect  is  often  used  where  we  should  expect  the  Pluperfect: 
diceres,  ‘ you  would  have  said  ’ ; crederes,  putares,  ‘ you  would  have  thought  ’ ' videres, 
cerneres,  ‘ you  would  have  seen  ’ : 

Tu  Platonem  laudaveris,  you  would  peaisb  Plato.  Cic.  Maesti,  crederes  v^ictos, 
redeunt  in  castra,  sad,  vanquished  you  would  have  thought  them,  they  returned  to 
the  camp.  Liv. 

Note  2.— On  Tenses,  see  also  478-483. 

Note  8.— The  Second  Person  Singular,  especially  of  the  Imperfect,  is  often  used  of  an 
indefinite  you,  meaning  one,  any  one : crederes,  ‘ you  would  have  thought,’  ‘ any  one 
would  have  thought.’ 

t/^486.  In  tbe  Potential  sense,  the  Subjunctive  is  used — 

I.  In  Declarative  Sentences,  to  express  an  affirmation  modestly,  doubtfully, 
or  conditionally  ; see  examples. 

Note  1.— Thus,  in  the  language  of  politeness  and  modesty,  the  Potential  Subjunctive 
is  often  used  in  verbs  of  wishing  and  thinking:  veUm,  ‘I  should  wish,’  for  void,  ‘I 
wish’;  nolim,  ‘ I should  be  unwilling’ ; mdUm,  ‘I  should  prefer’ ; 

Ego  censeam,  I should  think,  or  I am  inclined  to  think.  Liv.  Mihl  dari  veiim,  1 
should  like  to  have  it  given  to  me.  Cic. 

Note  2.— The  Potential  Subjunctive  is  used  in  the  conclusion  of  conditional  sen- 
tences; see  507, 1,  with  foot-note. 

^ II.  In  Interrogative  Sentences,  to  ask  not  what  is,  but  what  is  likely  to 
he,  what  may  be  or  would  he,  generally  implying  a negative  answer,  as  in 
the  last  two  examples  under  the  rule. 

< Note.— The  Subjunctive  with  ut,  with  or  without  the  interrogative  ne,  occurs  in  ques- 
tions expressive  of  impatience  or  surprise : ^ 

' Te  ut  ulla  res  frangat,  how  should  anything  subdue  you  f Cic.  Egone  ut  mentiar, 
that  I should  speak  falsely  f Plant. 

III.  In  Subordinate  Clauses,  whatever  the  connective,  to  represent  the 
action  as  possible  rather  than  real : 

Quamquam  epulis  careat  senectus,  though  old  age  may  be  without  its  feasts. 
Cic.  Quoniam  non  possent,  since  they  would  not  be  able.  Caes.  Ubi  res  pos- 
ceret, whenever  the  ease  might  demand.  Liv. 

Note. — From  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  and  the  Potential  Subjunctive  in  principal 
clauses  have  been  developed  the  various  uses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  subordinate  clauses. ^ 

1 After  forsitan  =fors  sit  am,  ‘ the  chance  may  be  whether,’  ‘ perhaps,’  the  Sub- 
junctive was  originally  in  an  indirect  question  (529),  but  it  may  be  best  treated  as  Poten- 
tial. So  also  with  forsan  and  fortasse. 

2 Some  grammarians  assume  an  ellipsis  of  a predicate,  as  crM.ibile  est,  fieri  potest,  etc. 
* Thus,  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  used  in  final,  conditional,  and  concessive 
clauses ; the  Potential  Subjunctive  in  clauses  of  result,  and  in  various  others  denoting 


268 


IMPERATIVE, 


SECTION  V. 

THE  IMPERATIVE  AND  ITS  TENSES. 

RULE  XL.— Imperative. 

^^487.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  commands,  exhokta 
TioNS,  and  entreaties  : 

Justitiam  cole,  practice  justice.  Cic.  Tu  ne  cede  malis,  do  not  yield  to 
misfortunes.  Verg.  Si  quid  in  te  peccavi.  Ignosce,  if  I have  sinned  against 
you^  pardon  me.  Cic. 

The  Present  Imperative  corresponds  to  the  Imperative  in  English: 
qoIq.,  practice  justice.  Cic.  Perge,  Catilina,  Cic. 

— -^2.  The  Future  Imperative  corresponds  to  the  imperative  use  of  the  Eng- 
lish Future  with  shall.^  or  to  the  Imperative  let.^  and  is  used — 

1)  In  COMMANDS  involving rather  than  present  action : 

Rem  penditote,  you  shall  consider  the  subject.  Cic.  Cras  petito,  dabitur, 
ash  to-morrow it  shall  be  granted.  Plaut. 

2)  In  LAWS,  orders,  precepts,  etc.,  especially  in  prohibitions: 

Consules  nemini  parento,  the  consuls  shall  be  subject  to  no  one.  Cic.  Salus 

populi  suprema  lex  esto,  the  safety  of  the  people  shall  be  the  supreme  law.  Cic. 

Note.— The  general  distinction  between  the  Present  Imperative  and  the  Future  is 
often  disregarded,  especially  in  poetry : i 

Ub!  aciem  videris,  tum  ordines  dissipa,  when  you  shall  see  the  line  of  battle.,  then 
scatter  the  ranks.  Liv.  Quoniam  supplicatio  decreta  est,  celebrMote  illos  dies,  since  a 
thanksgiving  has  been  decreed.,  celebrate  those  days.  Cic. 

3.  An  Imperative  clause  may  be  used  instead  of  a Conditional  clause  : 
Lacesse,  jam  videbis  furentem,  provoke  him  (i.  e.,  if  you  provoke  him), 

you  will  at  once  see  him  frantic.  Cic. 

4.  The  place  of  the  Imperative  may  be  supplied  by  the  Subjunctive  of  De- 
sire (483),  or  by  the  Future  Indicative : 

Ne  audeant,  let  them  not  dare.  Cic.  Quod  optimum  videbitur,  facies,  you 
will  do  what  shall  seem  best.  Cic. 

488.  In  prohibitions  or  negative  commands,  the  negative  ne,  rarely 
non,  accompanies  the  Imperative,  and  if  a connective  is  required,  neve  or 
neu  is  generally  used,  rarely  neque : 

Tti  ne  cede  malis,  do  not  yield  to  misfortunes.  Verg.  Hominem  mortuum 
in  urbe  ne  sepelito,  neve  urito,  thou  shalt  not  bury  nor  burn  a dead  body  in  the 
city.  Cic. 

what  is  Ukely  to  be.  Moreover,  from  these  two  leading  uses  was  developed  the  idea  of  a 
conceived  or  assumed  action,  which  probably  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  the  other  uses 
of  this  mood,  as  in  causal  and  temporal  clauses.,  in  indirect  questions.,  and  in  the 
subordinate  clauses  of  the  indirect  discourse. 

^ Thus  the  Future  is  especially  common  in  certain  verbs ; and,  indeed,  in  some  verbs, 
as  scibf  memini.,  etc.,  it  is  the  only  form  in  common  use. 


f : A t:>  T js  - 

SEQUENCE  6f  TENSES.  ^ 


^-269 


y489.  Instead  of  ne  with  the  Present  Imperative,  the  best  prose  writers 
generally  use — 

yi)  Noll  and  nolite  with  the  Infinitive : 

Nolite  putare,  do  not  thinh  (be  unwilling  to  think).  Cic. 

Fac  ne  or  cavl.,  with  the  Subjunctive : 

Fac  ne  quid  aliud  cures  hoc  tempore,  do  not  attend  to  anything  else  at  this 
time.  Cic.  Cave  facias,  beware  of  doing  it.,  or  see  that  you  do  not  do  it.  Cic. 

V 3)  Ne  with  the  Perfect  Subjunctive,  rarely  with  the  Present ; see  484, 
IV.,  note  1. 

SECTION  VI. 


MOODS  IN  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES. 

I.  Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Subordinate  Clauses. 

490.  In  subordinate  clauses  the  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  con- 
form to  the  following  rule  : 


/ RUIiE  XLI.— Sequence  of  Tenses. 

]/  491.  Principal  tenses  depend  upon  principal  tenses; 
historical  upon  historical : 

Nititur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  to  conquer.^  Cic.  Nemo  erit  qui  censeat, 
there  will  he  no  one  who  will  think. Cic.  Quaesieras  nonne  putarem,  you 
had  asked  whether  I did  not  think.  Cic.  Ut  honore  dignus  essem  laboravi, 
I strove  to  he  worthy  of  honor.  Cic. 

;/^92.  In  accordance  with  th^  ri|lp^  ^ .^bjunctive  dependent  upon 
a principal  presentffuture,  futur%  perfect.,  is  put — 

1.  In  the  Present,  to  denote  incomplete  action: 

Quaeritur  cur  dissentiant,  the  question  is  asked  why  they  disagree.  Cic. 
Nemo  erit  quI  censeat,  there  will  be  no  one  who  will  think.  Cic. 

Note.— Observe  that  in  these  examples  the  action  denoted  by  the  Subjunctive  belongs 
either  to  the  present  time  or  to  the  future. 


, 2.  In  the  Perfect,  to  denote  completed  action : 

^ Quaeramus  quae  vitia  fuerint,  let  us  inquire  what  faults  there  were.  Cic. 
Eogitabit  me  ubi  fuerim,  he  will  ask  me  where  I have  been.  Ter. 

>-^^OTE  1. — In  the  sequence  of  tenses,  the  Perfect  is  occasionally  treated  as  a prin- 
mpal  tense;  2 

Oblitus  es  quid  dixerim,  you  have  forgotten  what  I said.  Cic. 

Note  2. — For  further  illustrations  of  the  sequence  oftenses.^  see  493,  2,  note  2. 


1 The  Present  Subjunctive  generally  denotes  present  time  in  relation  to  the  principal 

verb.  Accordingly,  vincat  depending  upon  the  present.,  nlUtur.,  denotes  present  time, 
while  censeat  depending  upon  WiQ  future.,  erit.,  future  time. 

2 For  the  treatment  of  the  Perfect  in  the  sequence  of  tenses,  see  496. 


270 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES. 


493.  The  Subjunctive  dependent  upon  an  historical  tense,  imperfect, 
historical  perfect^  pluperfect.,  is  put — 


1.  In  the  Imperfect,  to  denote  incomplete  action : 

Timebam  ne  evenirent  ea,  I was  fearing  that  those  things  would  take  place 
(i.  e.,  at  some  future  time).  Cic.  Quaesieras  nonne  putarem,  you  had  in- 
quired whether  I did  not  think  (i.  e.,  at  that  time).  Cic. 

Note.— Observe  that  in  these  examples  the  time  of  the  action  denoted  by  the  Sub- 
junctive is  either  the  same  as  that  of  the  principal  verb  or  subsequent  to  it. 

^ 2.  In  the  Pluperfect,  to  denote  completed  action : 

Themistocles,  cum  Graeciam  liberasset,  expulsus  est,  Themistocles  was 
banished.,  though  he  had  liberated  Greece.  Cic. 


Note  1.— The  Pluperfect  after  an  historical  tense,  like  the  Perfect  after  a principal 
tense,  may  represent  the  action  as  completed  in  future  time;  see  496,  II. 

Note  2. — The  sequence  of  tenses  may  be  further  illustrated  as  follows  : ^ 


Nescit  quid  facias. 
Nesciet  quid  facias, 
Nesciverit  quid  facias. 
Nescit  quid  feceris. 
Nesciet  quid  feceris, 
Nesciverit  quid  feceris. 
Nesciebat  quid  faceres, 
Nescivit  quid  faceres, 
Nesciverat  quid  faceres, 
Nesciebat  quid  fecisses, 
Nescivit  quid  fecisses. 
Nesciverat  quid  fecisses. 


He  knows  not  what  you  are  doing. 

He  will  not  know  what  you  will  do.^ 

He  will  not  hare  known  what  you  will  do. 

He  knows  not  what  you  ha/ce  done,  or  \ohat  you  did.^ 
He  will  not  know  what  you  will  have  done.^ 

He  will  not  hare  known  what  you  will  have  done. 
He  did  not  know  what  you  were  doing. ^ 

He  did  not  know  what  you  were  doing. ^ 

He  had  not  known  what  you  were  doing. 

He  did  not  know  what  you  had  done. 

He  did  not  know  what  you  had  done. 

He  had  not  known  what  you  had  done. 


494.  The  periphrastic  forms  in  rus  and  dus  conform  to  the  general 
rule  for  the  sequence  of  tenses : 

Incertum  est  quam  longa  vita  futura  sit,  it  is  uncertain  how  long  Ufe  will 
continue.  Cic.  Incertum  erat  quo  missuri  classem  forent,  it  was  uncertain 
whither  they  would  send  the  fleet.  Liv. 

-I-  495.  Peculiarities  in  Sequence. — The  following  peculiarities 
in  the  sequence  of  tenses  deserve  notice  : 

I.  In  the  sequence  of  tenses  the  Latin  Perfect  is  generally  treated  as 
an  historical  tense,  even  when  rendered  with  have.,  and  thus  admits  the 
Imperfect  or  Pluperfect : 

Quoniam  quae  subsidia  haberes  exposui,®  nunc  dicam,  since  I hare  shown 


1 It  is  not  intended  to  give  all  the  possible  meanings  of  the  Subjunctive  clauses  here 
used,  but  simply  to  illustrate  the  sequence  of  tenses. 

2 Or,  he  will  not  know  what  you  are  doing.  Thus,  quid  facias  may  represent  the 
direct  question,  quid  facies,  ‘what  shall  you  do?  ’ or  quid  facets,  ‘what  are  you  doing?’ 

3 Or,  what  you  were  doing. 

^ Or,  what  you  hare  done,  or  what  you  did. 

® Or,  what  you  would  do.  Nesclrit  may  sometimes  be  rendered,  he  has  not  known. 
® Exposui,  though  best  rendered  by  our  Perfect  Definite  with  hare,  is  in  the  Latin 


SEQUEiM'M  '‘o^  '^JEN^m.  271 

what  aidb  you  ho^ve^  I will  now  speak.  Cic.  Haec  non  ut  vos  excitarem  locu- 
tus sum,  I have  not  spoken  this  to  arouse  (that  I might  arouse)  you.  Cic. 

Note.— For  the  Perfect  as  a principal  tense,  see  493,  2,  note  1. 

'4  II.  The  Historical  Present  (167,  III.)  is  generally  treated  as  an  historical 
tense,  but  sometimes  as  a principal  tense  : 

Persuadet  Castico  ut  regnum  occuparet,  he  persuaded  Casticus  to  seize  the 
government.  Caes.  Ubii  Orant  ut  sibi  parcat,  the  Uhii  implore  him  to  spare 
them.  Caes. 

Note. — The  Historical  Present  includes  the  Present  used  of  authors  (467,  3),  the 
Present  with  dum  (467,  4),  the  Historical  Infinitive  (536, 1),  etc. : 

Chrysippus  disputat  Aethera  esse  eum  quem  homines  Jovem  appellarent,  Chrysippus 
contends  that  he  whom  men  call  Jupiter  is  Aether.  Cic, 

v/  III.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive^  even  when  it  refers  to  present  time,  as 
in  conditional  sentences,  is  generally  treated  as  an  historical  tense,  though 
sometimes  as  a principal  tense : 

Nisi  ineptum  putarem,  jurarem  me  ea  sentire  quae  dicerem,  if  I did  not 
think  it  improper.,  I would  take  an  oath  that  I believe  those  things  which  Isay. 
Cic.  Memorare  possem  quibus  in  locis  hostes  populus  Romanus  fuderit^  / 
might  state  in  what  places  the  Roman  people  routed  the  enemy.  Sail. 

IV.  The  Perfect  Infinitive  is  generally  treated  as  an  historical  tense,  but 
the  Present  and  the  Future  Infinitive.,  the  Present  and  the  Future  Participle., 
as  also  Gerunds  and  Supines.,  share  the  tense  of  the  verb  on  which  they 
depend,  as  they  express  only  relative  time  (537,  550) : 

Satis  videor  docuisse,  hominis  natura  quanto  anteiret  animantes,  I think  I 
have  sufficiently  shown  how  much  the  nature  of  man  surpasses  that  of  the  other 
animals  (lit.,  surpassed  animals).  Cic.  Spero  fore  ^ ut  contingat,  I hope  it  will 
happen.  Cic.  Non  speraverat  fore  ut  ad  se  deficerent,  he  had  not  hoped  that 
they  would  revolt  to  him.  Liv.  Miserunt  Delphos  consultum  quidnam  face- 
rent, they  sent  to  Delphi  to  ask  what  they  should  do.  Nep. 

V.  Clauses  containing  a general  truth  usually  conform  to  the  law  for 
the  sequence  of  tenses,  at  variance  with  the  English  idiom : 

Quanta  conscientiae  vis  esset.,  ostendit,  he  showed  how  great  is  the  power  of 
conscience.  Cic. 

VI.  Clauses  denoting  consequence  or  resnilt  generally  express  absolute 
time.,  and  are  thus  independent  of  the  law  of  sequence.^  They  thus  admit 
the  Present  or  Perfect  after  historical  tenses  : 

Epaminondas  fide  sic  usus  est,  ut  possit  judicari,^  Epaminondas  used  such 

treated  as  the  Historical  Perfect.  The  thought  is  as  follows : Since  in  the  preceding 
topics  I set  forth  the  aids  which  you  hare.,  I will  now  speak.,  etc. 

1 Literally,  I hope  it  will  he  that  it  may  happen.  'R^rcfore  shares  the  tense  of 
sperh.,  and  is  accordingly  followed  by  the  Present,  contingat ; but  below  it  shares  the 
tense  of  speraverat.,  and  is  accordingly  followed  by  the  Imperfect,  dfficerent. 

This  peculiarity  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  result  of  a past  action  may  itself  be 


272 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES, 


fidelity  tTiat  it  ma-y  le  judged.  Nep.  Adeo  excellebat  Aristides  abstinentia, 
ut  Justus  sit  appellatus,  Aristides  so  excelled  in  self-control.^  that  he  has  leen 
called  the  Just,  Nep. 

YII.  For  the  sequence  of  tenses  in  the  indirect  discourse,  see  525, 

496.  Future  Time  in  the  Subjunctive. — When  the  Future  is  used  in 
the  principal  clause,  the  Future  and  Future  Perfect  tenses,  wanting  in  the 
Latin  Subjunctive,  are  supplied  in  the  subordinate  clauses  as  follows : 

I.  The  Future  is  supplied — (1)  after  a principal  tense  by  the  Present, 
and  (2)  after  an  historical  tense  by  the  Imperfect  : 

Omnia  sic  agentur  ut  helium  sedetur, i all  things  shall  he  so  managed  that 
the  war  will  he  brought  to  a close,  Cic.  Loquebantur,  etiam  cum  vellet  ^ Caesar, 
sese  non  esse  pugnaturos,  they  were  saying  that  they  luould  not  fight  even  when 
Caesar  should  wish  it,  Caes. 

II.  The  Future  Perfect  is  supplied — (1)  after  a principal  tense  by  the 
Perfect,  and  (2)  after  an  historical  tense  by  the  Pluperfect  : 

Eespondet  si  id  sit  factum,  se  nociturum  nemini,  he  replies  that  if  this 
should  he  done  (shall  have  been  done)  he  will  harm  no  one,  Caes.  Apparebat 
regnaturum,  qui  vicisset,  it  was  evident  that  he  would  he  king  who  should  con- 
quer, Liv. 

Note  1.— The  Future  and  the  Future  Perfect  tenses  are  often  supplied  in  the  same 
way,  even  when  the  Future  does  not  occur  in  the  principal  clause,  provided  the  idea  of 
future  time  can  be  easily  inferred  from  the  context : 

Yereor  ne  laborem  augeam,  I fear  that  I shall  increase  the  labor.  Cic.  Quid  dies 
ferat  incertum  est,  what  a day  will  bring  forth  is  uncertain.  Cic.  Quid  hostes  con- 
silii caperent,  exspectabant,  they  waited  to  see  what  plan  the  enemy  would  adopt. 
Caes.  Delitui,  dum  vela  dedissent,  I hid  myself  until  they  should  have  set  sail.  Verg. 

Note  2. — When  the  idea  of  future  time  must  be  especially  emphasized  in  the  sub- 
ordinate clause,  the  periphrastic  forms  in  rus  are  used  : ^ 

Incertum  est  quam  longa  vita  futura  sit,  it  is  uncertain  how  long  life  will  continue. 
Cic.  Incertum  erat  quo  missuri  classem  forent,  it  was  uncertain  whither  they  would, 
send  the  fleet.  Liv. 

Note  3.— The  Future  Perfect  is  sometimes  supplied  in  the  Passive  futurus  sim 
and  futurus  essem  with  the  Perfect  Participle  : ^ 

Non  dubito  quin  confecta  jam  res  futura  sit,  Ido  not  doubt  that  the  thing  will  have 
been  already  accomplished.  Cic. 


present.,  and  may  thus  be  expressed  by  a principal  tense.  When  the  result  belongs  to 
the  present  time,  the  Present  is  used:  possit  judicari,  ‘ may  be  judged  now’ ; when  it 
is  represented  as  completed,  the  Perfect  is  used : sit  appellatus,  ‘ has  been  called  ’ (i.  e., 
even  to  the  present  day) ; but  when  it  is  represented  as  simultaneous  with  the  action 
on  which  it  depends,  the  Imperfect  is  used  in  accordance  with  the  general  rule  (491). 

1 Sedetur,  referring  to  the  same  time  as  agentur,  and  vellet,  referring  to  the  same 

time  as  esse  pugnatur cs,  both  future  time. 

2 other  traditional  periphrastic  forms,  rarely  used  in  either  voice,  are — for  the  Fu- 
ture,sit  ut  with  the  Present  Subjunctive,  and  futurum  esset  ut  with  the  Im- 
perfect; and  for  the  Future  Perfect,  futurum  sit  ut  with  the  Perfect,  and  futurvm 
esset  ut  with  the  Pluperfect. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PURPOSE. 


273 


II.  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Purpose. 

RULE  XLII.— Purpose. 

497.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  Purpose  : ^ 

I.  With  the  relative  qui,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubi,  unde,  etc. : 
MissI  sunt  quI  (=ut  il)  consulerent  Apollinem,  the^  ivere  sent  to  consult 
Apollo  (wholliould,  or  that  they  should).  Nep.  MissI  sunt  delect!  quT 
Thermopylas  occuparent^  picked  men  were  sent  to  take  possession  of  Ther- 
mopylae. Nep.  Domum,  u^  habitaret,  legit,  he  selected  a house  where  he 
might  dwell  (that  he  might  dwell  in  it).  Cic.  Locum  petit,  unde  (=ut 
inde)  hostem  invadat,  he  seeks  a position  from  which  he  may  (that  from  it 
he  may)  attack  the  enemy.  Liv. 
j/n.  With  ut,  Be,  qtio,  quoTrinn®, 

Enititur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  that  he  may  conquer.  Cic.  Punit  ^ peccetur, 
he  punishes  that  crime  may  not  be  committed.  Sen.  Legum  idcirco  servi 
sumus,  ut  liberi  esse  possimus,  we  are  servants  of  the  law  for  this  reason, 
that  we  may  he  free.  Cic.  Medico  dare  quo  sit  studiosior,  to  give  to  the  phy- 
sician, that  (by  this  means)  he  may  he  more  attentive.  Cic.  Non  recusavit 
quominus  poenam  subiret,  did  not  refuse  to  submit  to  punishment.  Nep. 

'1.  Ut  or and  ne  are  the  usual  conjunctions  in  clauses  denoting  purpose. 

A correlative,  ided,  idcirco,  eo,  etc.,  sometimes  precedes,  as  in  the  third  ex-  -A 
ample  under.  II. 

Note.— With  a connective  ne  becomes  neve,  neu,  rarely  neque;  see  483,  3 : 

Legem  tulit  ne  quis  accusaretur  neve  multaretur,  he  proposed  a law  that  no  one 
should  he  accused'  or  punished.  Nep. 


\ 2.  Quo,  ‘ by  which,’  ‘ that,’  is  sometimes  used  in  clauses  denoting  purpose, 

especially  with  comparatives,  as  in  the  fourth  example  under  II.  Quominus, 
‘ by  which  the  less,’  ‘ that  thus  the  less,’  ‘ that  not,’  is  simply  quo  with  the 
comparative  minus.  It  is  sometimes  used  after  verbs  of  hindering,  opposing, 
and  the  like,  as  in  the  last  example  under  II. 


k 


Note. — Q;ub  setius  also  occurs  in  the  sense  of  quominus;  see  Cic.  Inv.,  II.,  45.  X 

498.  Clauses  of  Purpose  readily  pass  into  Object  Glauses J 


1 The  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  is  doubtless  in  origin  a Subjunctive  of  Desire,  express- 
ing the  desire  or  command  implied  in  the  action  of  the  principal  verb  : Te  rogo  ut  eum 
juves,  I ask  you  to  aid  him  (I  ask  you,  so  aid  him).  Here  the  second  clause,  originally 
independent,  contains  the  desire,  wish,  involved  in  rogo.  Vereor  ne  laborem  augeam, 
I fear  that  I shall  increase  the  labor  (I  fear,  let  me  not  increase  the  labor).  Praesto 
erit  pontifex,  qui  comitia  habeat,  the  pontiff  icill  he  present  to  hold  the  comitia  (the 
pontiff  will  be  present,  let  him  hold  the  comitia).  Liv.  See  Delbriick,  ‘ Conjunctiv  und 
Optativ,’  pp.  59-62. 

2 An  Object  Clause  is  one  which  has  become  virtually  the  object  of  a verb.  Thus,  in 
'opth  ut  id  audiatis^  the  clause  ut  id  audiatis  has  become  the  object  of  opto,  ‘ I desire.’ 


274 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PURPOSE. 


Thus  the  Subjunctive  is 


but  they  still  retain  the  Subjunctive, 
used — 

I.  With  verbs  signifying  Desire  and  its  Expression;  hence  decision., 
decree.,  etc. : ^ 

Opto  ut  id  audiatis,  I desire  that  you  may  hear  this.  Cic.  ITt  mihl 

aedes  aliquas  condueas  volo,  I wish  that  you  would  hire  a house  for  me.  Plaut. 
Senatus  censuerat,  uti  Aeduos  defenderet,  the  senate  had  decreed  that  he  should^ 
defend  the  Aedui.  Caes.  Servis  imperat  ut  filiam  defendant,  he  commands 
his  servants  to  defend  his  daughter.  Cic.  Te  hortor  ut  legas,  I exhort  you  to 
read.  Cic.  Te  rogo  ut  eum  juves,  I ash  you  to  aid  him.  Cic.  A rege  peti- 
verunt ne  inimicissimum  suum  secum  haberet,  they  asked  from  the  king  that 
he  would  not  keejp  his  worst  enemy  with  him.  Nep. 


Note.  — Verbs  of  determining,  deciding— constituo.,  decerno.,  etc. — generally 
take  the  Subjunctive  when  a new  subject  is  introduced,  otherwise  the  Injmitive  (533, 

Constituerat,  ut  tribunus  quereretur,  Ae  arranged  that  the  tribune  should  enter 
the  complaint.  Sail.  Senatus  decrevit,  darent  operam  consules,  the  senate  decreed  that 
the  consuls  should  attend  to  it.  Sail.  Manere  decrevit,  he  decided  to  remain.  Nep. 

'■  II.  With  verbs  and  expressions  denoting  Effort  (striving  for  a pur- 
pose., attaining  a purpose)  or  Impulse  (urging  to  effort) : ^ 


Contendit  ut  vincat,  he  strives  to  conquer.  Cic.  Ciiravi  ut  bene  viverem, 

I  took  care  to  lead  a good  life.  Sen.  Effecit  ut  imperator  mitteretur,  he  caused 
a commander  to  be  sent  (attained  his  purpose).  Nep.  Movemur  ut  bpni 
simus,  we  are  influenced  to  be  good.  Cic. 

Note  1. — Some  verbs  of  endeavoring,  striving,  as  conor.,  contendo.,  nitor ^ studeO., 
and  tento.,  generally  take  the  Infinitive  w^hen  no  new  subject  is  introduced ; see  533  : 

Locum  oppugnare  contendit,  he  proceeds  to  storm  the  city.  Caes.  Tentabo  de  h5c 
dicere,  I will  attempt  to  speak  of  this.  Quint. 

Note  2. — Ut  with  the  Subjunctive  sometimes  forms  with/ac^5  or  ago.,  rarely  with  est., 
a circumlocution  for  the  Indicative : facio  ut  dlcam  = dico ; facio  ut  scribam  — scribo : 
Invitus  facio  ut  recorder,  I unwillingly  recall.  Cic. 

'i  III.  With  verbs  and  expressions  denoting  Fear,  Anxiety,  Danger  : ^ > 

\ Timeo,  ut  labores  sustineas,  / fear  that  you  will  not  endure  the  labors.^ 
Cic.  Timebam  ne  evenirent  ea,  I feared  that  those  things  would  happen.  Cic. 

V ereor  ne  laborem  augeam,  I fear  that  I shall  increase  the  labor. ^ Cic.  Pericu- 
lum est  ne  ille  te  verbis  obruat,  there  is  danger  that  he  will  overwhelm  you 
with  words.  Cic. 


Note  1. — By  a difference  of  idiom,  ut  must  here  be  rendered  by  that  not.,  and  ne  by 
that  or  lest.  The  Latin  treats  the  clause  as  a wish  or  purpose.^ 


1 As  opto.,  postulo;  censeo.,  dJcerno,  statuo,  constituo,  etc.;  void,  mdlo;  admoneO, 
moneo,  hortor ; oro,  rogO ; impero,  praecipio,  etc. 

2 enitor,  contendo,  studeo;  curo,  id  ago,  operam  do,  eio,.\  facio,  efficio,  im- 
petro, consequor,  etc. ; cogo,  impello,  moveO,  etc. 

3 As  metuo.  Umeo,  vereor;  periculum  est,  cura  est,  etc. 

^ The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  manifest  if  we  make  the  subordinate  clause  inde- 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PURPOSE. 


275 


Note  2.— After  verbs  of  fearing,  ne  non  is  sometimes  used  for  regularly  so  after 
negative  clauses : 

Vereor  ne  non  possit,  I fear  that  he  will  not  he  able.  Cic. 

Note  3. — Verbs  of  fearing  admit  the  Infinitive  in  the  same  sense  as  in  English: 

Vereor  laudare,  I fear  (hesitate)  to  praise.^  Cic. 

499.  Peculiarities. — Expressions  of  Purpose  present  the  fol- 
lowing peculiarities  : 

1.  Ut  ne,  rarely  ut  non,  is  sometimes  used  for  ne : 

Praedixit,  ut  ne  legatos  dimitterent,  Tie  charged  them  not  to  (that  they 
should  not)  release  the  delegates.  Nep.  Ut  plura  non  dicam,  not  to  say  more 
(i.  e.,  that  I may  not).  Cic. 

A 2.  Ut  is  sometimes  omitted,  especially  after  volo.,  nolo.,  maid.,  facid.,  and 
after  verbs  of  directing,  urging,  etc.  Ne  is  often  omitted  after  cave: 

Tu  velim  sis,  I desire  that  you  may  he.  Cic.  Fac  habeas,  see  (make)  that 
you  have.  Cic.  Senatus  decrevit  darent  operam  consules,  the  senate  decreed 
that  the  consuls  should  see  to  it.  Sail.  Cave  facias,  heware  of  doing  it.,  or  see 
that  you  do  not  do  it.  Cic. 

Note.— Clauses  with.-zi^  or  ne  are  sometimes  inserted  parenthetically  in  sentences  : 

Amicos,  optimam  vitae,  ut  ita  dicam, 2 suppellectilem,/WeN.t?s,y/z0  best  treasure  (furni- 
ture), so  to  speak.,  of  life.  Cic.  J 

3.  Clauses  of  Purpose  sometimes  pass  into  Substantive  Clauses.,  which, 
like  indeclinable  nouns,  are  used  in  a variety  of  constructions : 

Per  eum  stetit  quominus  dimicaretur, ^ it  ivas  owing  to  him  (stood  through 
him)  that  the  battle  was  not  fought.  Caes.  Void  ut  mihi  respondeas,^  Iivish 
that  you  would  answer  me.  Cic.  Fecit  pacem  his  condicionibus,  ne  qui  ad- 
ficerentur  exsilio,^  he  made  peace  on  these  terms.,  that  none  should  he  punished 
with  exile.  Nep. 

Note  1.— For  the  Different  Forms  of  Substantive  Clauses.,  see  540. 

Note  2.— Clauses  with  quominus  sometimes  lose  the  original  idea  of  Purpose  and 
denote  Result : ^ 

Non  deterret  sapientem  mors  quominus  rei  publicae  consulat,  death  does  not  deter 
a wise  man  from  deliberating  for  the  republic.  Cic. 


pendent,  as  it  was  originally : I fear,  so  may  you  endure  the  labors,  an  affirmative  wish 
If  earn,  may  I not  increase  the  labor,  a negative  wish;  hence  ne. 

1 Compare  vereor  laudare,  ‘ I fear  to  praise,’  with  vereor  ne  laudem,  ‘ I fear  that 

I SHALL  PRAISE.’ 

2 The  Subjunctive  in  this  and  similar  clauses  may  be  explained  either  as  a Subjunc- 
tive of  Purpose  dependent  upon  a verb  understood,  or  as  a Subjunctive  of  Desire;  see 

483. 

3 In  the  first  example,  the  clause  quominus  dlmicdrUur  has  become  apparently  the 
subject  of  stetit;  in  the  second,  ut  mihl  respondeas,  the  object  of  volb;  and  in  the  third, 
ne  qiin  adficerentur  exsiUd,  an  appositi ve  to  condicionibus. 

4 Such  a transition  from  Purpose,  denoting  an  Intended  Result,  to  a Simple  Result 
is  easy  and  natural. 


276 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT. 


III.  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  op  Result. 

RULE  XEIH.— Result. 

'500.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  Eesult* — 

p*  I.  With  the  relative  qui,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubl,  unde,  cur 


./ 


etc.  : 


Non  is  sum  quI  (—  ut  ego)  his  utar^  I am  not  such  a one  as  to  use  these 
things.  Cic.  Innocentia  est  adfecti5  talis  animi,  quae  (=  ut  ea)  noceat  nemini, 
innocence  is  such  a state  of  mind  as  injuees  no  one.,  or  as  to  injure  no  one.  Cic. 
ISeque  quisquam  fuit  ubi  nostrum  jus  obtineremus,  nor  was  there  any  one 
with  whom  (where)  we  could  obtain  our  right.  Cic.  Est  vero  cur  quis  Juno- 
nem laedere  nolit,  there  is  indeed  a reason  why  (so  that)  one  loould  be  unwill- 
ing to  offend  Juno.  Ovid. 

)^  II.  With  ut,  ut  n5n,  quin  : - 

Ita  vixit  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  carissimus,  he  so  lived  that  he  was  very 
dear  to  the  Athenians.  Nep.  Ita  laudo,  ut  nbn  pertimescam.,  I so  praise  as  not 
TO  FEAR.  Cic.  Ego  in  publicis  causis  ita  sum  versatus  ut  defenderim  multos, 
/ have  been  so  occupied  in  public  suits  that  I have  defended  many.  Cic.  Nihil 
est  tarn  difficile  quin  {ut  non)  investigari  possit,  nothing  is  so  difficult  that  it 
may  not  be  investigated.  Ter. 

^ Note  1.  Qui  is  often  preceded  by  is.,  tdlis^  tantus,  or  some  similar  word  j and  ut, 
by  ita,  sic,  tarn,  adeb,  tantopere,  or  some  similar  particle ; see  examples. 

Note  2.  In  Plautus  and  Terence  ut  sometimes  accompanies  gul : 

Ita  ut  qui  neget,  so  that  he  refuses.  Ter. 

Note  8.—For  the  Subjunctive  denoting  a result  after  quominus,  see  499,  3,  note  2. 


1 501.  Clauses  of  Result  readily  pass  into  Substantive  Clauses, 

but  they  still  retain  the  Subjunctive.  Thus  the  Subjunctive  is  used— 

— ^ I.  In  Subject  Clauses.  Thus — 

^1.  With  impersonal  verbs  signifying  it  happens,  remains,  follows,  is  law- 
ful, is  allowed,  is  distant,  is,  etc. : ^ 

Fit  ut  quisque  delectetur,  it  happens ^ that  every  one  is  delighted.  Cic. 
Sequitur  ut  falsum  sit,  it  follows  that  it  is  false.  Cic.  Eestat  ut  doceam,  it 
remains  that  I should  show.  Cic.  Ex  qu5  efficitur  ut  voluptas  non  sit  sum- 
mum  \iOX)xun\,  from  which  it  follows  that  pleasure  %s  not  the  highest  good.  Cic, 
^2.  With  predicate  nouns  and  adjectives: 

^ Mos  est  ut  nolint,  it  is  their  custom  not  to  be  willing  (that  they  are  un- 
willing). Cic.  Proximum  est,  ut  doceam,  ^5,  Cic. 

Non  est  dubium  quin  beneficium  sit,  that  it  is  a benefit,  is  not  doubtful.  Sen. 

1 The  Subjunctive  of  Result  is  doubtless  in  origin  a Potential  Subjunctive  : 2Jbn  is 
sum  qui  his  utar,  ‘ I am  not  one  who  ivould  use  (or  is  likely  to  use)  these  things.’ 
Hence  this  Subjunctive  takes  the  negative  non  {ut  non)  like  the  Potential  Subjunctive, 
while  the  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  takes  the  negative  ne  like  the  Subjunctive  of  De^re. 

2 As  accidit,  contingit,  evenit,  fit,  restat,  sequitur,  licet,  abest,  est,  etc. 


c 


CA'^ 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT. 


m 


Note. — For  the  Subjunctive  with  ut.,  with  or  without  ne^  in  questions  expressive  of 
impatience  or  surprise^  see  486,  II.,  note. 

^I.  In  Object  Clauses.  Thus — 

^1.  In  clauses  introduced  6^  ut  after  facio^  of  the  action  of  irra- 

tional forces : 

Sol  efficit  ut  omnia  floreant,  the  sun  causes  all  things  to  hloom  (i.  e.,  pro- 
duces that  result).  Cic.  Splendor  vester  facit  ut  peccare  sine  periculo  non 
possitis,  your  conspicuous  position  causes  this  result^  that  you  can  not  err  with- 
out peril.  Cic.  See  498,  II. 

—2.  In  clauses  introduced  hy  quin  after  verbs  of  Doubting : 

Non  dubitabis  quin  sint  beati,  you  will  not  doubt  that  they  are  happy.  Cic. 
III.  In  Clauses  in  Apposition  with  nouns  or  pronouns : 

Habet  hoc  virtus  ut  delectet,  mrtue  has  this  ad'vantage.,  that  it  delights. 
Cic.  Est  hoc  vitium,  ut  invidia  gloriae  comes  sit,  there  is  this  fault.,  that  envy 
is  the  companion  of  glory.  Nep. 

Note. — For  the  different  forms  of  substantive  clauses,  see  540. 

"V508.  Peculiarities. — Expressions  of  Result  present  the  fob 
lowing  peculiarities : 

"^1.  Ut  is  sometimes  omitted — regularly  with  oportet.,  generally  with  opm 
est  and  necesse  est : 

Te  oportet  virtus  trahat,  it  is  necessary  that  virtue  should  attract,  you.  Cic. 
Causam  habeat  necesse  est,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  have  a cause.  Cic. 

^ 2.  The  Subjunctive  occurs  with  quam — with  or  without  ut : 

Liberalius  quam  ut  posset,  too  freely  to  be  able  (more  freely  than  so  as  to 
be  able).  Nep.  ImpOnebat  amplius  quam  ferre  possent,  he  imposed  more 
than  they  were  able  to  bear. 

3.  After  tantum  abest  ut,  denoting  result,  a second  ut  of  result  some- 
times occurs : 

Philosophia,  tantum  abest  ut  laudetur,  ut  etiam  vituperetur,  so  far  is  it 
Arom  the  truth  (so  much  is  w^anting)  that  philosophy  is  praised,  that  it  is  even- 
censured.  Cic. 

503.  In  Relative  Clauses,  the  Subjunctive  of  Result 
shows  the  following  Special  Constructions  : 

I.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  relative  clauses  to  characterize  an 
Indefinite  or  General  Antecedent : ^ 

Quid  est  quod  te  delectare  possit,  ivhat  is  there  which  can  delight  you  ? 
Cic.  Nunc  dicis  aliquid  quod  ad  rem  pertineat,  now  you  state  something  which 
belongs  to  the  subject.  Cic.  Sunt  qui  putent,  there  are  some  who  think.  Cic. 
Nemo  est  qui  non  cupiat,  there  is  no  one  who  does  not  desire.  Cic. 


1 Here  tarn,  tails,  or  some  such  word,  is  often  understood. 


378 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT. 


Note  1.— Kestrictive  clauses  with  quod^  as  quod  sciam,  ‘as  far  as  I know,’  quod 
meminerim,  ‘ as  far  as  I remember,’  etc.,  take  the  Subjunctive  : 

Non  ego  te,  quod  sciam,  unquam  ante  hunc  diem  vidi,  as  far  as  I know,  I have 
never  seen  you  before  this  day.  Plant. 

Note  2, — Quod,  or  a relative  particle,  ubl,  unde,  quo,  citr,  etc.,  with  the  Subjunctive, 
is  used  after  est,  there  is  reason  ’ ; non  est,  nihil  est,  ‘ there  is  no  reason  ’ ; quid  est,  ‘ what 
reason  is  there  ? ’ non  habeo,  nihil  habeO,  ‘ I have  no  reason  ’ : ' 

Est  quod  gaudeas,  there  is  reason  wh/y  you  should  rejoice,  or  so  that  you  may. 
Plant.  Non  est  quod  credas,  there  is  no  reason  why  you  should  believe.  Sen.  Nihil 
habeo,  quod  incusem  senectutem,  I have  no  reason  why  I should  accuse  old  age.  Cic. 
Quid  est  cur  virtus  ipsa  non  eflQciat  beatos,  what  reason  is  there  why  virtue  itself 
should  not  make  men  happy  f Cic. 

Note  3.— The  Indicative  is  freely  used  in  relative  clauses  after  indefinite  antecedents: 

1)  In  poetry  i and  late  prose : 

Sunt  quos  juvat,  there  are  some  whom  it  delights.  Hor. 

2)  Even  in  the  best  prose,  when  the  fact  itself  is  to  be  made  prominent: 

Sunt  qui  non  audent  dicere,  there  are  some  who  do  not  dare  to  speak,  Cic.  Multa 
sunt,  quae  did  possunt,  there  are  many  things  xdhich  may  be  said,  Cic. 

II.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  relative  clauses — 

1.  After  unus,  solus,  and  the  like  : 

Sapientia  est  nna,  quae  maestitiam  pellat,  wisdom  is  the  only  thing  which 
dispels  sadness  (which  would  dispel).  Cic.  Soli  centum  erant  qui  creari  pos- 
sent, there  were  only  one  hundred  who  could  be  appointed  (such  that  they  could 
be).  Liv. 

2.  After  dlgnus,  indignus,  idoneus,  and  aptus : 

Fabulae  dignae  sunt,  quae  legantur,  the  fables  are  worthy  to  be  read  (that 
they  should  be  read).  Cic.  Kufum  Caesar  idoneum  judicaverat  quem  mit- 
teret, Caesar  had  judged  Rufus  a suitable  person  to  send  (whom  he  might 
send).  Caes. 

3.  After  comparatives  with  guam : 

Damna  majora  sunt  quam  quae  {=ut  ea)  aestimari  possint,  the  losses  are 
too  great  to  be  estimated  (greater  than  so  that  they  can  be).  Liv. 

504.  Qulriy^  ^wlio  not/  ^that  not/  etc.,  is ‘often  used 
to  introduce  a result  after  negatives  and  interrogatives 
implying  a negative.  ® Thus — 

1 Especially  in  early  poetry,  as  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 

2 Quin  is  a compound  of  the  relative  qui  and  ne,  and  appears  to  be  used  both  as  an 
indeclinable  relative  pronoun,  who  not,  and  as  a relative  particle,  by  which  not,  how  not, 
etc.  Some  clauses  with  quin  may  perhaps  be  best  explained  as  indirect  questions 
(539, 1.).  Quin,  meaning  why  notf  often  used  in  independent  clauses,  is  a compound 
of  the  interrogative  quis  or  qui,  and  ne : Quin  tu  hoc  fads,  ‘ why  do  you  not  do  it  ? ’ Liv. 

3 As  nemo,  nullus,  nihil,  quis?  non  dubito,  non  dubium  est;  non  multum  abest, 
paulum  abest,  nihil  abest,  quid  abest?  non,  vix,  aegre  abstineo;  mihi  non  tempero; 
non  retineor;  non,  nihil  praetermitto  ; facere  non  possum,  fieri  non  potest;  nun- 
quam with  a large  class  of  verbs. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT. 


279 


1.  Quin  is  often  used  in  the  sense  of  qul  non^  quae  non^  etc.,  as 
after  nem^j^  nullus^  nihil^  quis  f 

Adest  nemo,  quin  videat,  there  is  no  one  'present  'who  does  not  see.  Cic. 
Nemo  est  quin  audierit,  there  is  no  one  who  has  not  heard.  Cic.  Quis  est 
quin  cernat,  who  is  there  who  does  not  perceive  ? Cic.  Nulla  fuit  civitas  quin 
mitteret,  there  was  no  state  which  did  not  send.  Caes.  Nulla  pictura  fuit 
quin  {—quam  non)  inspexerit,  there  ivas  no  painting  which  he  did  not  inspect. 
Cic.  Nullum  intermisi  diem,  quin  (=  quo  non  or  ut  eo  non)  aliquid  darem, 
I allowed  no  day  to  pass  without  giving  something  (on  which  I would  not  give 
something).  Cic. 

Note.— can  often  be  best  rendered  by  hut  or  by  without  or  from  with  a parti- 
ial  noun  in  -ing:  see  the  last  example  under  1 ; also  the  last  under  2, 


Quin  is  often  used  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  ut  non : 

Nemo  est  tarn  fortis  quin  perturbetur,  no  one  is  so  brave  as  not  to  he  dis- 
turbed. Caes.  Nihil  est  tarn  difficile  quin  investigari  possit,  nothing  is  so 
difficult  that  it  may  not  be  investigated.  Ter.  Ketineri  nOn  poterant  quin 
tela  coicerent,^  they  could  not  be  restrained  from  hurling  their  weapons.  Caes. 

Note. — Is  or  id  is  sometimes  expressed  after  quin : 

Nihil  est  quin  id  intereat,  there  is  nothing  which  does  not  perish.  Cic. 

^ 3.  Quin  is  used  in  the  sense  of  ut  non  or  of  ut  in  subject  and 
object  clauses  (501)  : 

J 1)  With  facere  non  possum.,  fieri  non  potest,  etc.,  in  the  sense  of  ut  non: 

Facere  nOn  possum  quin  litteras  mittam,  I can  not  but  send  a letter.  Cic. 
Effici  non  potest  quin  eOs  Oderim,  it  can  not  be  (be  effected)  that  I should  not 
hate  them.  Cic. 

^ 2)  With  negative  expressions  implying  doubt  and  uncertainty,  in  the 
sense  of  ut : 

Agamemnon  non  dubitat  quin  TrOja  sit  peritura,  Agamemnon  does  not 
doubt  that  Troy  will  fall  (perish).  Cic.  Non  dubitari  debet  quin  fuerint 
poetae,  it  ought  not  to  be  doubted  that  there  were  pods.  Cic.  Quis  ignOrat 
quin  tria  genera  sint,  who  is  ignorant  that  there  are  three  races  f Cic. 

4.  Quin  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  quominus : ^ 

Quin  loquar  haec,  nunquam  me  potes  deterrere,  you  can  never  deter  me 
from  saying  this.  Plaut.  NOn  deterret  sapientem  mors  quOminus  rOi  publi- 
cae cOnsulat,  death  does  not  deter  a wise  man  from  deliberating  for  the  repub.- 
lic.  Cic.  Non  reciisavit,  quOminus  poenam  subiret,  he  did  not  refuse  to  sub- 
mit to  punishment.  Nep.  Neque  recusare  quin  armis  contendant,  and  that 
they  do  not  refuse  to  contend  in  arms.  Caes. 

Note.— For  non  quin  in  Causal  Clauses,  see  516,  2. 

1 Pronounced  as  if  written  cbjicerent;  see  36,  4,  with  foot-note  1. 

2 As  after  verbs  of  hindering.,  refusing.,  and  the  like.  Observe  that  in  the  examples 
dderreO  and  recuso  are  used  both  with  quin  and  with  quominus.  They  also  admit  the 
Subjunctive  with  ne  or  the  Infinitive ; see  505,  II. 


280 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 


505.  Construction  of  Special  Verbs. — Some  verbs  admit 
two  or  more  different  constructions.  Thus — 

I.  Duhito  admits — 

1.  Quin,  WITH  THE  Subjunctive,  if  it  stands  in  a negative  sentence ; 
see  504,  3,  2). 

2.  An  Indirect  Question  (529,  I.): 

Non  dubito  quid  putes,  I do  not  doubt  what  you  think.  Cic.  Dubito  an 
'ponam,  I doubt  whether  I should  not  place.^  Nep. 

8.  The  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive  : 

Quis  dubitat  patere  Europam,  who  doubts  that  Europe  is  exposed?  Curt. 

4.  The  simple  Infinitive,  when  it  means  to  hesitate : 

Non  dubitem  dicere,  I should  not  hesitate  to  say.  Cic.  Dubitamus  virtutem 
extendere  factis,  do  we  hesitate  to  extend  our  glory  (valor)  by  our  deeds?  Verg. 

II.  Verbs  of  hindering.,  opposing.,  refusing.,  and  the  like,  admit — 

1.  The  Subjunctive  with  ne,  quin,  or  qu5minus : ^ 

Impedior  ne  plura  dicam,  1 am  prevented  from  saying  (that  I may  not  say) 
more.  Cic.  Sententiam  ne  diceret  recusavit,  he  refused  to  give  an  opinion. 
Cic.  Neque  recusare  quin  armis  contendant,  and  that  they  do  not  refuse  to 
eontend  in  arms.  Caes.  Intercludor  dolore  quominus  plura  scribam,  1 am 
prevented  by  sorrow  from  writing  more.  Cic. 

2.  The  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive,  or  the  simple  Infinitive  : 

Num  ignobilitas  sapientem  beatum  esse  prohibebit,  will  obscurity  prevent 

a ivise  man  from  being  happy  ? Cic.  Quae  facere  recusem,  which  1 should 
refuse  to  do.  Hor. 

IV.  Moods  in  Conditional  Sentences. 

506.  Every  conditional  sentence  consists  of  two  distinct  parts, 
expressed  or  understood — the  Condition  and  the  Conclusion : 

Si  negem,  mentiar,  if  I shoidd  deny  it.,  1 should  speak  falsely.^  Cic. 

RULE  XLIV*— Conditional  Sentences  with  si»  nisi»  ni»  sin. 

507.  Conditional  sentences  with  si,  nisi,  ni,  sin,  take — 
I.  The  Indicative  in  both  clauses  to  assume  the  sup- 
posed case : 

1 That  is,  I am  inclined  to  think  that  I should  place.  Observe  that  dubito  an 
means  ‘I  doubt  whether  not’=‘l  am  inclined  to  think,’  and  dubito  num.,  ‘I  doubt 
whether’ : Dubito  num  debeam.,  ‘ I doubt  whether  I ought.’  Plin. 

2 For  the  use  of  quin.,  see  504.  Ne  and  quominus  may  follow  either  affirmatives 
or  negatives. 

3 Here  si  negem  is  the  condition,  and  mentiar.,  the  conclusion.. 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 


281 


Si  spiritum  ducit,  vivit,  if  he  breathes^  he  is  alive.  Cic.  Si  tot  exempla 
virtutis  non  movent,  nihil  unquam  movebit,  if  so  many  examples  of  valor 
do  not  move  {you\  nothing  will  ever  move  {you).  Liv. 

II.  The  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  both 
clauses  to  represent  the  supposed  case  as  possible : 

Dies  deficiat,  si  velim  causam  defendere,  the  day  would  fail  me.,  if  1 
should  wish  to  defend  the  cause.  Cic.  Improbe  feceris,  nisi  monueris,  you 
would  do  wrong.,  if  you  should  not  give  warning.  Cic. 

III.  The  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in 
both  clauses  to  represent  the  supposed  case  as  contrary  to 
fact: 

Pluribus  verbis  ad  te  scriberem,  si  res  verba  desideraret,  I should  write 
to  you  more  fully  (with  more  words),  if  the  case  required  wo7'ds.  Cic.  Si 
voluisset,  dimicasset,  if  he  had  wished.,  he  would  have  fought.  Nep. 

1.  Two  clauses  without  any  conjunction  sometimes  have  the  force  of  a 
conditional  sentence : 

Negat  quis,  nego,  does  any  one  deny.,  I deny.  Ter.  Roges  me,  nihil  re- 
spondeam, ask  me.,  1 shall  make  no  reply.  Cic.  Tu  magnam  partem,  sineret 
dolor,  haberes,  you  would  have  had  a large  share.,  had  grief  permitted.'^  Verg. 
Lacesse ; jam  videbis  furentem,  provoke  him  (i.  e.,  if  you  provoke  him),  you 
will  at  once  see  hiin  f rantic.  Cic.^ 

2.  A condition  is  sometimes  introduced  by  the  relative  qui,  quae,  etc. 
= si  is.,  si  quis,  si  qicl.,  etc. : 

Qui  secum  loqui  poterit,  sermonem  alterius  non  requiret,  if  any  one  (lit., 
he  who)  shall  he  able  to  converse  with  himself.,  he  will  not  need  the  conversation 

1 See  510,  note  2. 

2 From  these  examples  it  is  manifest  that  a conditional  particle  is  not  an  essential  part 
of  a conditional  sentence.  Originally  the  two  clauses,  the  condition  and  the  conclusion., 
were  independent,  and  the  mood  in  each  was  determined  by  the  ordinary  principles 
which  regulate  the  use  of  moods  in  principal  clauses ; see  483 ; 485.  Hence  the  Indica- 
tive was  used  in  treating  of  facts,  and  the  Subjunctive  or  Imperative  in  all  other  cases. 
/Sz,  probably  the  Locative  case  of  a pronoun,  meaning  (1)  at  that  time  or  in  that  manner. 
and  (2)  at  any  time  or  in  any  manner.,  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  mood,  but 
merely  denotes  that  the  conclusion  is  connected  with  the  condition.  Thus  : negat.,  nego., 
‘he  denies  (i.  e.,  assume  that  he  denies),  I deny’;  si  negat.,  negophe  denies  at  some 
time,  then  I deny  ’ ; di^  dejiciat,  si  velim.,  etc.,  ‘ let  me  wish  (Subjunctive  of  Desire)  at 
any  time,  etc.,  then  the  day  would  fail  me.’  The  Subjunctive  in  conditions  is  a Subjunc- 
tive of  Desire  with  nearly  the  force  of  the  Imperative,  which  may  indeed  be  used  for  it 
when  si  is  omitted,  as  lacesse,  ‘ provoke  him  (i.  e.,  if  you  provoke  him).’  In  conclusions 
the  Subjunctive  is  generally  potential,  as  dies  dejiciat,  ‘ the  day  would  fail,’  but  some- 
times it  is  the  Subjunctive  oj  Desire,  for  which  the  Imperative  may  be  substituted ; as, 
peream,  si  poterunt,  ‘ may  I perish  if  they  shall  be  able  ’ ; si  peccdvl.  Ignosce,  ‘ if  I have 
erred,  pardon  me.’  See  Delbriick,  ‘ Conjunctiv  und  Optativ,’  pp.  T0-T4;  lTl-182. 


283 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES, 


i>f  another,  Cic.  Errat  longe,  qui  credat,  etc.,  he  greatly  errs  who  supposes^ 
etc.  (i.  e.,  if  any  one  supposes,  he  greatly  errs).  Ter.  Haec  qui  videat, 
nonne  cogatur  confiteri,  etc.,  if  any  one  should  see  these  things^  would  he  not 
be  compelled  to  admits  etc.  ? Cic. 

3.  A condition  is  sometimes  introduced  by  cum : 

Ea  cum  dixissent,  quid  responderes,  if  (when)  they  had  said  that^  what 
should  you  reply  ? Cic. 

Note  1. — The  condition  is  sometinaes  ironical,  especially  with  nisi  verd^  nisi  forte^ 
with  the  Indicative,  and  with  quasi^  quasi  rero^  with  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive; 

Nisi  forte  Insanit,  unless  perhaps  he  is  insane.  Cic.  Quasi  vero  necesse  sit,  as  i/ 
indeed  it  icere  necessa/ry.  Caes. 

Note  2—lta — si,  ‘so— if,’  means  only— if.  Si  quidem.,  ‘if  indeed,’  sometimes  has 
nearly  the  force  of  since : 

Hoc  ita  justum  est,  si  est  voluntarium,  this  is  just  only  if  (on  condition  that)  it  is 
voluntary.  Cic.  Antiquissimum  est  genus  poetarum,  si  quidem  Homerus  fuit  ante 
Romam  conditam,  the  class  of  poets  is  very  ancient.,  since  Homer  lived  before  Lhe 
foimding  of  Rome.  Cic. 

Note  ^.—Nisi  or  ‘if  not,’  is  sometimes  best  rendered  but  or  except: 

Nescio,  nisi  hOc  video,  I know  not.,  but  (except  that)  I observe  this.  Cic. 

Note  4. — Nisi  si  means  except  if  unless  perhaps.,  unless: 

Nisi  si  qui  scripsit,  unless  some  one  has  written.  Cic. 

Note  6.— For  si  to  be  rendered  to  see  if  to  see  whether.,  etc.,  see  639, 1,  note  1. 

Note  6. — For  quod-  si.,  quod  ni,  quod  nisi.,  see  453,  6. 

Note  7.— The  condition  may  be  variously  supplied,  as  by  a participle,  by  the  ablative 
absolute,  or  by  the  oblique  case  of  a noun  : 

Non  potestis,  voluptate  omnia  dirigentes  •(=  dirigitis).,  retinere  virtutem,  you 
can  not  retain  your  manhood.,  if  you  arrange  all  things  with  reference  to  pleasure. 
Cic.  Recte  facto  ( = rede  factum  erif).,  laus  proponitur,  if  it  is  (shall  be)  well  done., 
praise  is  offered.  Cic.  NemO  sine  spe  (=  nisi  spem  haberet)  se  offerret  ad  mortem, 
no  one  without  a hope  (if  he  had  not  a hope)  would  expose  himself  to  death.  Cic. 

Note  8. — For  Conditional  Sentences  in  the  Indirect  Discourse,  see  537. 

608.  Fikst  Form. — Conditional  sentences  with  the  In 
dicative  in  loth  clauses,  assuming  the  supposed  case  as  real, 
may  base  upon  it  any  statement  which  would  be  admissible 
if  the  supposed  case  were  a known  fact : 

Si  haec  civitas  est,  civis  sum  ego,  if  this  is  a state.,  I am  a citizen.  Cic.  Si 
non  licebat,  non  necesse  erat,  if  it  was  not  lawful.,  it  was  not  necessary.  Cic. 
Si  vis,  dabo  tibi  testes,  if  you  tvish.,  I will  furnish  you  witnesses.  Cic.  Plura 
scribam,  si  plus  otil  habuero,  I will  write  more  if  I shall  have  (shall  have 
had)  more  leisure.  Cic.  Dolorem  si  n5n  potero  frangere,  occultabo,  if  1 shall 
not  be  able  to  overcome  sorrow.,  I shall  conceal  it.  Cic.  Parvi  sunt  foris  arma, 
nisi  est  consilium  domi,  arms  are  of  little  value  abroad.,  unless  there  is  wisdom 
at  home.  Cic.  Si  domi  sum,  etc. ; sin  ^ foris  sum,  etc.,  if  I am  at  home.,  etc. ; 
but  if  I am  abroad.,  QtQ.  Plaut.  if  I do  not  thinh.  Cic. 

1 Sin  from  si  ne.,  ‘if  not,’  ‘if  on  the  contrary,’  ‘but  if,’  properly  introduces  a condi- 
tion in  contrast  with  another  condition  expressed  or  implied.  Thus,  sin  foris  is  in  con 
U-ast  with  si  domly  and  means  but  if  abroad. 


ri  o 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES, 


283 


1.  The  Condition  is  generally  introduced,  when  aflarmative,  by  s?,  with  or  without 
other  particles,  as  quidem,^  modo,,  etc,,  and  when  negative,  by  si  non^  nisi 

2.  The  Time  may  be  present,,  past,,  or  future,,  but  it  need  not  be  the  same  in  both 
clauses.  Thus  the  Present  or  the  Future  Perfect  in  the  condition  is  often  followed  by 
the  Future,  as  in  the  third  and  fourth  examples. ^ 

8.  Si  non  and  nisi  are  often  used  without  any  perceptible  difference  of  meaning;  but 
strictly  si  non  introduces  the  negative  condition  on  which  the  conclusion  depends,  while 
nisi  introduces  a qualification  or  an  exception.  Thus,  in  the  s<  cond  example  above,  the 
meaning  is,  if  it  teas  not  laicful,,  it  follows  that  it  was  not  necessary  ; while  in  the  fourth 
the  meaning  is,  arms  are  of  little  value  abroad,,  except  when  there  is  loisdom  at  home, 

4.  The  Conclusion  irrespective  of  the  condition  may  assume  a considerable  variety 
of  form.  Thus : 

Redargue  me  sT  mentior,  refute  me  if  I speak  falsely.  Cic.  Moriar,  nl  puto,  may 
I die,,  if  I do  not  think,  Cic.  Quid  timeam,  si  beatus  futurus  sum,  why  should  I fear 
if  I am  going  to  be  happy  f Cic.  Si  quid  habes  certius,  velim  - scire,  if  you  have  any 
information  (anything  more  certain),  I should  like  to  know  it.  Cic. 

5.  General  Truths  may  be  expressed  conditionally — 

1)  By  the  Indicative  in  both  clauses,  as  in  the  sixth  example  under  508. 

2)  By  the  Second  Person  of  the  Subjunctive  used  of  an  indefinite  you  (=  any  one)  in 
the  condition,  with  the  Indicative  in  the  conclusion  : 

Memoria  minuitur,  nisi  eam  exerceas,  the  memory  is  impaired,,  if  you  do  not  (one 
does  not)  exercise  it.  Cic.  Nulla  est  excusatio  peccati,  si  amici  causa  peccaveris,  itis 
no  excuse  for  a fault,,  that  you  have  committed  it  for  the  sake  of  a friend.  Cic. 

509.  Secokd  Form. — Conditional  sentences  with  the 
Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses  represent 
the  condition  as  possible : 

Haec  si  tecum  patria  loquatur,  n5niie  impetrare  debeat,  if  your  country 
should  speak  thus  with  you.,  ought  she  not  to  obtain  her  request  f Cic.  Improbe 
feceris,  nisi  monueris,  you  would  do  ivrong,,  if  you  should  not  give  warning, 
Cic.  See  also  507,  II. 

Note  1.— The  Time  denoted  by  these  tenses,  the  Present  and  the  Perfect,,  is  generally 
either  present  or  future,  and  the  difiference  between  the  two  is  that  the  former  regards 
the  action  in  progress,,  the  latter  in  its  completion.  Thus,  loquatur,,  ‘should  speak’ 
(now  or  at  any  future  time) ; so  of  debeat ; but  feceris.,  though  referring  to  the  same 
time  as  loquatur.,  regards  the  action  as  completed.^ 

Note  2.— The  Present  Subjunctive  is  occasionally  used  in  conditional  sentences,  even 
when  the  condition  is  in  itself  contrary  to  fact: 

1 A conditional  sentence  with  the  Future  Perfect  in  the  condition  and  the  Future  in 

the  conclusion,  as  plura  scribam.,  si  plus  btil  habuero.,  corresponds  to  the  Greek  with 
idv  or  dv  with  the  Aorist  Subjunctive  in  the  condition,  and  the  Future  Indicative  in  the 
conclusion ; as,  veo<;  dv  novria-r)';,,  eu0aAes,  if  you  icill  labor  while  young.,  you 

will  have  a prosperous  old  age. 

2 Observe  that  in  each  of  these  examples  the  mood  in  the  conclusion  is  entirely  in- 
dependent of  the  condition.  Thus,  redargue  is  a command ; moriar.,  a praj^er.  Subjunc- 
tive of  Desire;  quid  timeam.,  a deliberative  question  (484,  Y.);  and  velim.,  a Potential 
Subjunctive  (486,  note  1). 

3 As  the  Present  Subjunctive  in  point  of  time  is  very  closely  related  to  the  Future 
Indicative  in  conditional  sentences,  so  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  is  very  closely  related  to 
the  Future  Perfect  Indicative,  though  it  may  refer  to  past  time. 


384 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 


Tu  dl  hlc  sis,  aliter  sentias,  if  you  were  I (if  you  were  in  my  place),  you  would  think 
differently.  Ter. 

Note  3.— When  dependent  upon  an  historical  tense,  the  Present  and  Perfect  are  of 
course  generally  changed  to  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  by  the  law  for  Sequence  of 
Tenses  (490) : 

Metuit  ne,  si  iret,  retraheretur,  he  feared  lest^  if  he  should  go,^  he  would  he  brought 
hack.  Liv. 

510.  Third  Form. — Conditional  sentences  with  the  Im- 
perfect or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses  represent 
the  supposed  case  as  contrary  to  fact,  and  simply  state 
what  would  have  been  the  result  if  the  condition  had  been 
fulfilled  : 

Sapientia  non  expeteretur,  si  nihil  efficeret,  wisdom  would  not  he  sought  (as 
it  is),  if  it  accomplished  nothing.  Cic.  Si  optima  tenere  possemus,  haud 
sane  consilio  egeremus,  if  we  were  able  to  secure  the  highest  good.,  we  should 
not  indeed  need  counsel.  Cic.  Si  voluisset,  dimicasset,  if  he  had  wished.,  he 
would  have  fought.  Nep.  Nunquam  abisset,  nisi  sibi  viam  munivisset,  he 
would  never  have  gone.,  if  he  had  not  prepared  for  himself  a way.  Cic.  See 
also  507,  III. 

Note  1. — Here  the  Imperfect  generally  relates  to  present"^  time,  as  in  the  first  and 
second  examples ; the  Pluperfect  \opast  time,  as  in  the  third  and  fourth  examples. 

Note  2.— The  Imperfect  sometimes  relates  \.o  past  time,  especially  when  it  expresses 
a continued  action,  or  is  accompanied  by  any  word  denoting  past  time : 

Nec,  si  cuperes,  tibi  id  facere  licuisset,  nor  xvould  you  have  been  permitted  to  do  it., 
if  you  had  desired.  Cic.  Num  Opimium,  si  turn  esses,  temerarium  civem  putares, 
would  you  have  thought  Opimius  an  audacious  citizen  if  you  had  lived  at  that  time? 
Cic. 

511.  A Conclusion  of  the  First  Form  is  sometimes  combined 
with  a Condition  of  the  Second  or  Third  Form.  Thus — 

1.  The  Indicative  is  often  thus  used  in  the  conclusion  (1)  to  denote  a 
general  truth.,  and  (2)  to  emphasize  a fact.,  especially  with  a condition  in- 
troduced by  nisi  or  7ii : ^ 

Turpis  excusatio  est,  si  quis  fateatur,  etc.,  it  is  a base  excuse,  if  one  admits, 
etc.  Cic.  Intrare,  si  possim,  castra  hostium  void,  I wish  to  enter  the  camp  of 
the  enemy,  if  1 am  able.  Liv.  Certamen  aderat,  ni  Fabius  rem  expedisset,  a 
contest  was  at  hand,  but  Fabius  (lit.,  if  Fabius  had  not)  adjusted  the  affair.'^ 
Liv.  Nec  veni,  nisi  fata  locum  dedissent,  nor  should  I have  come,  had  not 
the  fates  assigned  the  place.^  Verg. 

1 This  use  of  the  Imperfect  to  denote  present  time  was  developed  from  the  ordinary 
force  of  the  Subjunctive  tenses.  Thus  the  Present  denotes  that  which  is  likely  to  be., 
the  Imperfect  that  which  was  likely  to  be,  and  so  by  implication  that  which  is  not 
Compare/m^  in  the  sense  of  was,  but  is  not,  471, 1,  2). 

2 Here  the  condition  merely  introduces  a qualification  or  an  exception  ; see  508, 3. 

3 The  force  of  the  Indicative  can  not  be  easily  shown  in  a translation,  but  the  Latin 

conception  \&,Ihave  not  come  without  the  divine  guidance  in  the  condition). 


CONDITIONAL  SENfmCES. 


I^OTE  1 . — The  Future  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  in  the  conclusion  because  of  its 
near  relationship  in  force  to  the  Present  Subjunctive 

Si  mittat,  quid  respondebis,  if  he  should  send^  what  answer  shall  you  give  f Lucr. 
Nec  si  cupias,  licebit,  nor^  if  you  should  desire  it^  will  it  he  allowed,  Cic. 

Note  2. — In  a negative  conclusion  with  a negative  condition,  the  verb  possum  is 
generally  in  the  Indicative  : 2 

Neque  amicitiam  tueri  possumus,  nisi  amicos  diligamus,  nor  should  we  he  ahle  to 
preserve  friem  dship,  if  we  should  n^t  love  our  friends,  Cic. 

Note  8,— The  Historical  Tenses  of  verbs  denoting  Duty,,  Propriety,,  Necessity,, 
Ahility,  and  the  like,  in  the  conclusion  of  conditional  sentences,  are  generally  in  the  In- 
dicative : 

Quern,  sT  ulla  in  te  pietas  esset,  colere  debebas,  whom  you  ought  to  have  honored 
(and  would  have  honored),  if  there  were  any  filial  affection  in  you,  Cic.  Vix  castra, 
si  oppugnaretur,  tutari  poterat,  he  was  hardly  ahle  to  defend  the  camp,,  if  he  should 
he  attacked,  Liv.  Deleri  exercitus  potuit,  si  persecuti  victores  essent,  the  army  might 
have  heen  destroyed  (and  would  have  been),  if  the  victors  had  pursued,  Liv. 

Note  4. — The  Historical  Tenses  of  the  Indicative  of  still  other  verbs  are  sometimes 
similarly  used  when  accompanied  by  paene  or  prope  : 

Pons  iter  paene  hostibus  dedit,  ni  unus  vir  fuisset,  the  bridge  almost  furnished  a 
passage  to  the  enemy  (and  would  have  furnished  it),  had  there  not  heen  one  man,  Liv. 

2.  The  Periphrastic  Forms  in  rus  and  dus  in  the  conclusion  of  condi- 
tional sentences  are  generally  in  the  Indicative : ® 

Quid  si  hostes  veniant,  facturi  estis,  what  shall  you  do  if  the  enemy  should 
wme  f Liv.  Si  quaeratur,  indicandum  est,  if  inquiry  should  he  made,,  in- 
formation must  he  given,  Cic.  Eelicturi  agros  erant,  nisi  litteras  misisset, 
they  would  have  left  ^ their  lands,,  had  he  not  sent  a letter,  Cic.  Quid  futurum 
fuit,  si  plebs  agitari  coepta  esset,  what  would  have  heen  the  result,,  if  the  ple- 
beians had  begun  to  be  agitated  f Liv.  Si  verum  respondere  velles,  haec  erat 
dicenda,  if  you  wished  to  answer  truly,,  this  should  have  heen  said,  Cic.  Si 
morati  essetis,  moriendum  omnibus  fuit,  if  you  had  delayed,,  you  must  all 
have  perished,  Liv. 

Note. — When  the  Perfect  Indicative  in  the  conclusion  with  the  Subjunctive  in  the 
condition  is  brought  into  a construction  which  requires  the  Subjunctive,  the  tense  remains 
unchanged,  irrespective  of  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb : 

Adeo  est  inopia  coactus  ut,  nisi  timuisset,  Galliam  repetiturus  fuerit,®  he  was  so 

1 See  479,  with  foot-note  3.  A conditional  sentence  with  the  Present  Subjunctive 
in  the  condition,  and  the  Future  Indicative  in  the  conclusion,  corresponds  to  the  Greek 
iav  with  the  Present  Subjunctive  in  the  condition,  and  the  Future  Indicative  in  the  con- 
clusion: TovTo  eav  (TKOTrijTe,  eupT^o-ere,  if  you  examine  this,,  you  will  find. 

2 Here,  too,  the  use  of  the  Indicative  grows  out  of  the  relationship  between  the  mean 
ing  of  possum,,  denoting  ability,  and  that  of  the  Potential  Subjunctive  denoting  pos- 
sibility, 

2 The  Indicative  is  here  explained  by  the  close  relationship  between  the  ordinary 
meaning  of  the  Subjunctive,  and  that  of  the  forms  in  rus  and  dus  denoting  that  something 
is  about  to  he  done  or  ought  to  he  done, 

* Lit.,  were  about  to  leave,  and  so  would  have  left,  had  he  not,  etc. 

® Here  repetiturus  fuerit  is  in  the  Subjunctive,  not  because  it  is  in  a conditional  sen- 
tence, but  because  it  is  the  Subjunctive  of  Result  with  ut ; but  it  is  in  the  Perfect,  be 
cause,  if  it  were  not  dependent,  the  Perfect  Indicative  would  have  been  used. 


^86 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 


pressed  hy  want  that^  if  he  had  not  feared^  he  would  have  retwrned  to  Gaul.  Liv. 
Haud  dubium  fuit,  quin  nisi  firmata  extrema  agminis  fuissent,  ingens  accipienda  cladea 
fuerit,  there  was  no  doubt  that.,  had  not  the  rear  of  the  line  been  made  strong.,  a great 
disaster  must  have  been  sustained.  Liv.  Quaeris  quid  potuerit  amplius  assequi,  si 
Scipionis  fuisset  filius,  you  ask  what  more  he  could  home  attained.,  if  he  had  been  the 
son  of  Scipio.  Cic. 

512.  A Conclusion  of  the  Third  Form  (510)  is  sometimes  combined 
with  a Condition  of  the  Second  Form  (509) : 

Si  tecum  loquantur,  quid  responderes,  if  they  should  speak  with  you^  what 
answer  would  you  give  f Cic. 

RULE  XLV.— Conditional  Clauses  with  dum,  modo»  Ec  si» 
ut  si»  etc. 


I.  With  dum,  modo,  dummodo,^  ‘ if  only,’  ‘ provided  that  ’ ; dum 
ne,  modo  ne,  dummodo  ne,  ‘ if  only  not,’  ‘ provided  that  not  ’ : 

Manent  ingenia,  modo  permaneat  industria,  Tnental  powers  remain.,  if  only 
industry  remains.  Cic.  Dum  res  maneant,  verba  fingant,  let  them  make 
words.,  if  only  the  facts  remain.  Cic.  Dummodo  repellat  periculum,  provided 
he  may  avert  danger.  Cic.  Dum  ne  tibi  videar,  non  laboro,  provided  Ido  not 
seem  so  to  you.,  I do  not  care.  Cic. 

II.  With  ac  si,  ut  si,  quam  si,  quasi,  tanquam,  tanquam  si,  velut, 
velut  si,  ‘ as  if,’  ‘ than  if,’  involving  an  ellipsis  of  the  real  conclusion : 

Perinde  habebo,  ac  si  scripsisses,  I shall  regard  it  just  as  if  (i.  e.,  as  I 
should  if)  you  had  written.  Cic.  Jacent,  tanquam  omnino  sine  animo  sint 
they  lie  as  if  (i.  e.,  as  they  would  lie  if)  they  ivere  entirely  without  mind.  Cic. 
Quam  si  vixerit  tecum,  as  if  he  had  lived  with  you.  Cic.  Miserior  es,  quam 
si  oculos  non  haberes,  you  are  more  unhappy  than  (you  would  be)  if  you  had 
not  eyes.  Cic.  Crudelitatem,  velut  si  adesset,  horrebant,  they  shuddered  at 
his  cruelty  as  (they  would)  if  he  were  present.  Caes.  Ut  si  in  suam  rem 
aliena  convertant,  as  if  they  should  appropriate  others'  possessions  to  their  own 
use.  Cic.  Tanquam  audiant,  as  if  they  may  hear.  Sen. 

Note  1,— In  this  form  of  conditional  sentences,  the  Present  ^ or  Imperfect  used  of 
present  time,  and  the  Perfect  ^ or  Pluperfect  of  past  time ; see  examples  above. 

* When  not  used  in  conditions,  these  conjunctions  often  admit  the  Indicative : Dum 
leges  vigebant,  while  the  laws  were  in  force.  Cic. 

2 This  Subjunctive  is  best  explained  as  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire.,  as  indicated  by  the 
negative  ne  (483,  3).  Thus,  modo  permaneat  industria.,  ‘ only  let  industry  remain  ’ ; 
dum  ne  tibl  videar.,  ‘ let  me  not  meanwhile  seem  so  to  you.’  After  dum  and  dummodo 
the  Subjunctive  may  perhaps  be  explained  as  Potential.,  but  the  negative  ne  renders  such 
an  explanation  very  doubtful. 

3 The  English  idiom  would  lead  us  to  expect  only  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect.,  as 
under  510;  but  the  Latin  often  regards  the  condition  as  possible,  and  thus  uses  the 
Present  and  Perfect.,  as  under  509. 


513.  Conditional  clauses  take  the  Subjunctive — 


0^  T-T"''T'R.Tr. 

cojsrcmsivi;  clauses. 


28? 


Note  2,—Ceu  and  slcuU  are  sometimes  used  like  dc  sl^  ut  etc. : 

Ceu  bella  forent,  as  if  there  were  wars.  V erg.  Sicuti  audiri  possent,  as  if  they  could 
be  heard.  Sail. 

V.  Moods  in  Concessive  Clauses. 

514.  A concessive  clause  is  one  which  concedes  or  admits  some- 
thing, generally  introduced  in  English  by  though  or  although : ^ 

Quamquam  itinere  fessi  erant,  tamen  procedunt,  although  they  were  weary 
with  the  journey.^  they  still  (yet)  advanced.  Sail. 

Note. — The  concessive  particle  is  sometimes  omitted  : 

Sed  habeat,  tamen,  etc.,  hut  grant  that  he  has  it^  yet.,  etc.  Cic. 

RULE  XL VI,— Moods  in  Concessive  Clauses. 

615.  Concessive  clauses  take — 

I.  Generally  the  Indicative  in  the  best  prose,  when 
introduced  by  quamquam : 

Quamquam  intellegunt,  tamen  nunquam  dicunt,  though  they  understand., 
they  never  speak.  Cic.  Quamquam  festinas,  non  est  mora  longa,  though 
you  are  in  haste,  the  delay  is  not  long.  Hor. 

II.  The  Indicative  or  Subjunctive,^  when  introduced 
by  etsi.^  etiamsi,,  tametsi^  or  si,^  like  conditional  clauses 
with  si.  Thus— 

1.  The  Indicative  is  used  to  represent  the  supposed  case  as  a fact: 

Gaudeo,  etsi  nihil  scio  quod  gaudeam,  I rejoice,  though  I know  no  reason 

why  I should  rejoice.  Plaut. 

2.  The  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive,  to  represent  the  supposed  case 
as  possible  : 

Etsi  nihil  habeat  in  se  gloria,  tamen  virtutem  sequitur,  though  glory 
may  not  possess  anything  in  itself,  yet  it  follows  virtue.  Cic. 

3.  The  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive,  to  represent  the  supposed 
case  as  contrary  to  fact : 

Etiamsi  mors  oppetenda  esset,  domi  mallem,  even  if  death  ought  to  be 
met,  I should  prefer  to  meet  it  at  home.  Cic. 

III.  The  Subjunctive,^  when  introduced  by  licet^  quam- 
vis,, ut,,  ne^  cum,,  or  the  relative  qui : 

1 Concessive  clauses  bear  a close  resemblance  to  conditional  clauses  both  in  form 
and  in  use.  Si  optimum  est,  ‘ if  it  is  best,’  is  a condition ; etsi  optimum  est,  ‘ even  if  (or 
though)  it  is  best,’  is  a concession ; the  one  assumes  a supposed  case,  the  other  admits 
It.  The  Subjunctive  in  concessive  clauses  is  in  general  best  explained  in  the  same  way 
as  in  conditional  clauses;  see  507, 1,  foot-note  2. 

In  origin  licet  is  dimply  the  impersonal  verb  of  the  same  form,  and  the  Subjunctive 


288 


CONCESSIVE  CLAUSES 


Licet  irrideat,  plus  tamen  ratio  valebit,  though  he  may  deride^  reason 
will  yet  avail  more.  Cic.  Non  tu  possis,  quamvTs  excellas,  you  would  not 
he  able.,  although  you  excel.  Cic.  Ut  desint  vires,  tamen  est  laudanda 
voluntas,  though  the  strength  fails.,  still  the  will  should  be  approved.  Ovid. 
Ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est,  though  pain  may  not  he  the 
greatest  evil,  it  is  certainly  an  evil.  Cic.  Cum  domi  divitiae  adfluerent, 
fuere  tamen  cives,  etc.,  though  wealth  abounded  at  home,  there  were  yet 
citizens,  etc.  Sail.  Absolvite  Verrem,  qui  {cum  is)  se  fateatur  pecunias 
cepisse,  acquit  Verres,  though  he  confesses  (who  may  confess)  that  he  has 
accepted  money.  Cic. 

Note  1. — Quamquam  takes  the  Subjunctive— 

1)  When  the  thought,  irrespective  of  the  concessive  character  of  the  clause,  requires 
that  mood : 

Quamquam  epulis  careat  senectus,  though  old  age  may  be  without  its  feasts.  Cic. 

2)  Sometimes,  even  in  the  best  prose,  apparently  without  any  special  reason : 

Quamquam  ne  id  quidem  suspicionem  habuerit,  though  not  even  that  gave  rise  to 

any  suspicion.  Cic. 

3)  In  poetry  and  in  late  prose,  the  Subjunctive  with  quamquam  is  not  uncommon. 
In  Tacitus  it  is  the  prevailing  construction : 

Quamquam  invicti  essent,  although  they  were  invincible.  Verg.  Quamquam  pleri- 
que  ad  senectam  pervenirent,  although  very  many  reached  old  age.  Tac. 

Note  2. — Quamquam  and  etsi  sometimes  have  the  force  of  yet,  but  yet,  and  yet: 

Quamquam  quid  loquor,  and  yet  why  do  I speak  ? Cic.  Etsi  tibi  assentior,  and  yet 
I assent  to  you.  Cic. 

Note  ^.—Quamvis  in  the  best  prose  takes  the  Subjunctive  almost  without  exception, 
generally  also  in  Livy  and  Nepos ; but  in  poetry  and  in  late  prose  it  often  admits  the 
Indicative : 

Erat  dignitate  regia,  quamvis  carebat  nomine,  he  was  of  royal  dignity,  though  he 
was  without  the  name.  Nep. 

Note  A.—Qul  and  cum,  used  concessively,  generally  take  the  Indicative  in  Plautus 
and  Terence,  and  sometimes  even  in  classical  prose  : 

Audes  praedicare  id,  domi  te  esse  nunc  qui  hic  ades,  do  yoii  dare  to  assert  this,  that 
you  arenoio  at  home,  although  you  are  here  present  f Plaut.  Cum  tabulas  emunt, 
tamen  nequeunt,  though  they  purchase  paintings,  tlwy  are  yet  unable.  Sail.  Cum 
Sicilia  vexata  est,  tamen,  though  Sicily  was  disturbed,  yet.  Cic. 

Note  5. — TJt—slc,  or  utr—ita,  ‘though— yet’  (lit.,  ‘as— so’),  involving  comparison 
rather  than  concession,  does  not  require  the  Subjunctive  : 

Ut  a proeliis  quietem  habuerant,  ita  non  cessaverant  ab  opere,  though  (lit.,  as)  they 
had  had  rest  from  battles,  yet  (lit.,  so)  they  had  not  ceased  from  work.  Liv. 

Note  6. — Quamvis  and  quantumvis,  ‘as  much  as  you  please,’  ‘however 

much,’  may  accompany  licet  with  the  Subjunctive : 

Non  possis  tu,  quantumvis  licet  excellas,  you  would  not  be  able,  however  much  you 
may  excel.  Cic. 

clause  which  follows,  developed  from  Result  (501,  I.),  is  its  subject.  Thus,  in  licet 
irrideat  (lit.,  ‘that  he  may  deride  is  allowed’),  irrideat  is  according  to  the  Latin  con- 
ception the  subject  of  licet.  Qucum-vls,  compounded  of  quam,  ‘ as,’  and  vis,  ‘ you  wish,’ 
means  as  you  wish;  thus,  quamvis  excellas  means  literally  excel  as  you  wish  (i.  e.,  as 
much  as  you  please).  The  Subjunctive  with  quamms,  ut,  ne,  and  quA,  is  the  Subjumc^ 
five  of  Desire;  that  with  cum  was  developed  from  the  temporal  clause;  see  631. 


CAUSAL  CLAUSES. 


289 


VI.  Moods  in  Causal  Clauses. 


RULE  XL VII.— Moods  with  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  quando.^ 


516.  Causal  clauses  with  quod,  quia,  quoniam, 
quando,  generally  take — 

I.  The  Indicative  to  assign  a YQ2i^0Ti  positively.^  on  one^s 
own  authority : 

Quoniam  supplicatio  decreta  est,  celebratote  illos  dies,  since  a thanks- 
giving has  been  decreed.,  celebrate  those  days.  Cic.  Gaude  quod  spectant  te, 
rejoice  that  (because)  they  behold  you.  Hor. 

f II.  The  Subjunctive  to  assign  a reason  douhtfully.^  or 
on  another'’ s authority  : ^ 


Socrates  accusatus  est,  quod  corrumperet  juventutem,  Socrales  was  ac- 
cused., because  (on  the  alleged  ground  that)  he  corrupted  the  youth.  Quint. 
Aristides  nonne  expulsus  est  patria,  quod  justus  esset,  was  not  Aristides 
banished  because  (on  the  alleged  ground  that)  he  was  just?  Cic. 


1.  By  a special  construction,  the  verb  introducing  a reason  on  another’s 
authority  is  sometimes  put  in  the  Infinitive,  depending  upon  a verb  of  saying 
or  thinking  in  the  Subjunctive  : 

Quod  se  bellum  gesturos  dicerent  (=  quod  bellum  gesturi  essent,  ut  dice» 
bant),  because  they  were  about.,  as  they  said.,  to  wage  war.  Caes.  . 

Note. — In  the  same  way  the  Subjunctive  of  a verb  of  saying  or  thinking  may  be 
used  in  a relative  clause  to  introduce  the  sentiment  of  another  person  : 

Ementiendo  quae  sc  audisse  dicerent,  by  reporting  falsely  what  they  had  heard 
(what  they  said  they  had  heard).  Sail. 

2.  Non  Quo  etc. — Non  quo.,  non  quod.,  non  quin.,  rarely  non  quia.,  also 
quam  quod.,  etc.,  are  used  with  the  Subjunctive  to  denote  an  alleged  reason  in 
distinction  from  the  true  reason  : 

Non  quo  haberem  quod  scriberem,  not  because  (that)  I had  anything  to 
write.  Cic.  Non  quod  doleant,  not  because  they  are  pained.  Cic.  Quia  ne- 


1 Quod  and  quia  are  in  origin  relative  pronouns  in  the  neuter.  Thus  : gaude  quod 
spectant  te.,  ‘ rejoice  that  (as  to  that)  they  behold  you.’  Quoniam  = quom-jam,  ‘ when 
now,’  and  quandb  = quam-db  {do  = die).,  ‘ on  which  day,’  ‘ when.’  Do  is  probably  from 
the  same  root  as  dum;  see  p.  145,  foot-note  1. 

2 Observe  that  causal  clauses  with  the  Indicative  state  a fact,  and  at  the  same  time 
present  that  fact  as  a reason  or  cause,  as  in  the  first  example,  but  that  causal  clauses 
with  the  Subjunctive  simply  assign  a reason  without  asserting  any  fact.  Thus,  in  the 
examples  under  II.,  quod  corrumperet  juventutem  does  not  state  that  Socrates  cor- 
rupted the  youth,  but  simply  indicates  the  charge  made  against  him ; nor  does  quod 
justus  esset  state  that  Aristides  was  just,  but  simply  indicates  the  alleged  ground  of 
his  banishment.  For  the  development  of  the  Subjunctive  in  causal  clauses,  see  p.  267, 
foot-note  3. 


20 


290 


CAUSAL  CLAUSES. 


quiverat  quam  quod  Ignoraret,  because  he  had  been  unable rather  than  because 
he  did  not  know,  Liv. 

Note. — Clauses  with  quod  sometimes  stand  at  the  beginning  of  sentences  to  an- 
nounce the  subject  of  remark  : 

Quod  me  Agamemnonem  aemulari  putas,  falleris,  in  thinking  (as  to  the  fact  that 
you  think)  that  1 emulate  Agamemnon.,  you  are  mistaken.  Nep. 

RULE  XLVIIl. — Causal  Clauses  with  cum  and  qui* 

\ 517.  Causal  clauses  with  cum  and  qu%  generally  take 

the  Subjunctive,  in  writers  of  the  best  period  : 

Necesse  est,  cum  sint  dii,  animantes  esse,  since  there  are  gods.,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  there  should  he  living  beings.  Cic.  Cum  vita  metas  plena  sit, 
since  life  is  full  of  fear.  Cic.  Quae  cum  ita  sint,  perge,  since  these  things 
are  so,  proceed.  Cic.  0 vis  veritatis,  quae  {cum  ea)  se  defendat,  O the 
force  of  truth,  since  it  defends  itself.  Cic.  0 fortunate  adulescens,  qui 
{cum  til)  tuae  virtutis  Homerum  praeconem  inveneris,  O fortunate  youth, 
since  you  (lit.,  leho)  have  obtained  Homer  as  the  herald  of  your  valor.  Cic. 

1.  In  early  Latin,  especially  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  the  Indicative  is  the 
prevailing  mood  in  causal  clauses  with  cum  and  qul,  though  the  Subjunctive 
is  not  uncommon  with  qul : ^ 

Quom2  facere  officium  scis  tuum,  since  you  know  how  to  do  your  duty. 
Plaut.  Quom  hoc  non  possum,  since  1 have  not  this  power.  Ter.  Qul  ad- 
venisti, since  you  have  come.  Plant.  Tuas  qul  virtutes  sciam,  since  1 knoio 
your  virtues.  Plaut.  Qul  neminem  videam,  / see  Ter. 

2.  Clauses  with  either  cum  or  qul  admit  the  Indicative  in  all  writers, 
when  the  statement  is  viewed  as  a fact : 

Habeo  senectuti  gratiam,  quae  mihi  sermonis  aviditatem  auxit,  1 cherish 
gratitude  to  old  age,  which  has  increased  my  love  of  conversation.  Cic.  Gratu- 

1 Clauses  with  cv/m.,  whether  causal  or  temporal,  illustrate  the  gradual  extension  of 
the  use  of  the  Subjunctive  in  subordinate  clauses.  Originally  they  took  the  Indicative, 
unless  the  thought  irrespective  of  the  causal  or  temporal  character  of  the  clause  required 
the  Subjunctive.  Thus  the  Ciceronian  sentence,  Necesse  est,  cum  sint  dil,  animantes 
esse,  ‘ since  there  are  gods,  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  living  beings,’  would  in 
early  Latin  have  been,  Necesse  est,  cum  sunt  dii,  animantes  esse,  and  would  have  con- 
tained two  distinct  statements,  viz.,  there  are  gods,  and  it  is  necessary  that  there  should 
he  living  beings.  But  in  time  the  causal  clause  lost  so  much  of  its  original  force  as  a 
separate  statement,  and  became  so  entirely  dependent  upon  the  principal  clause,  as  to  be 
little  more  than  an  adverbial  modifier  of  the  latter,  like  the  Ablative  of  Cause  (413)  in  a 
simple  sentence.  The  causal  clause  then  took  the  Subjunctive,  and  the  sentence  as  a 
whole  made  but  one  distinct  statement,  which  may  be  approximately  rendered,  in  view 
of  (because  of)  the  existence  of  the  gods,  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  living 
beings.  In  the  same  way,  temporal  clauses  with  cum  sometimes  became  little  more 
than  adverbial  modifiers  of  the  principal  verb;  see  521,  II.,  1,  with  foot-note,  and  521, 
II.,  2,  with  foot-note.  For  a special  treatment  of  these  clauses,  see  Hoffmann,  ‘ Die  Con 
struction  der  lateinischen  Zeitpartikeln,’  and  Liibbert,  ‘ Die  Syntax  von  Quora.’ 

* See  311,  1,  with  foot-note  4.  .. 


TEMPORAL  CLAUSES, 


291 


lor  tibi,  cum  tantum  vales,  I congratuloM  you  that  (in  view  of  tbe  fact  that) 
you  have  so  great  influence.  Cic. 

3.  When  a conjunction  accompanies  the  relative,  the  mood  varies  with  the 
conjunction.  Thus — 

1)  The  Subjunctive  is  generally  used  with  cum^  qulppe^  ut.,  utpote : 

Quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  bO.  Cic.  Quippe  qui  blandiatur, 
since  he  flatters  (as  one  who  flatters).  Cic.  Ut  qui  coloni  essent,  since  they 
were  colonists.  Cic. 

Note.— But  the  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  to  give  prominence  to  the/ac^.  In 
Sallust  the  Indicative  is  the  regular  construction  after  quippe: 

Quippe  qui  regnum  invaserat,  as  lie  had  laid  hold,  of  the  kingdom.  Sail. 

2)  The  Indicative  is  generally  used  with  quia.,  quoniam  : 

Quae  quia  certa  esse  non  possunt,  since  these  things  can  not  he  sure.  Cic. 
Qui  quoniam  intellegi  noluit,  since  he  did  not  wish  to  be  understood,  Cic. 


VII.  Moods  in  Temporal  Clauses.^ 


RULE  XLIX.— Temporal  Clauses  with  postquam,  etc. 
518.  In  temporal  clauses  with  postquam.^  postedquam^ 
uh%  ut^  simul  atque.,  etc.,  ^ after,’  ‘ when,’  ^ as  soon  as,’ 
the  Indicative  is  used  : 


Postquam  vidit,  etc.,  castra  posuit,  he  pitched  his  camp^  after  he  saw., 
etc.  Caes.  Ubi  certiores  facti  sunt,  when  they  were  informed.  Caes.  Id 
ut  audivit,  as  he  heard  this.  Nep.  Postquam  vident,  after  they  saw}  Sail. 
Postquam  nox  aderat,  when  night  was  at  hand.  Sail. 


Note  1. — The  t&nse  in  these  clauses  is  generally  the  Perfect  or  the  Historical  Pres- 
hut  sometimes  the  Descriptive  Imperfect;  4 see  examples  above;  also  471,  4. 
Note  2.— The  Pluperfect  Indicative  is  sometimes  used— 

1)  Especially  to  denote  the  result  of  a completed  action  : 

Posteaquam  consul  fuerat,  after  he  had  been  consul.^  Cic.  Anno  tertio  postquam 
profugerat,  in  the  third  year  after  he  had  fled.  Nep. 

2)  To  denote  repeated  action  : ® 

Ut  quisque  venerat,  solebat,  etc.,  as  each  one  came  (lit.,  had  come\  he  was  wont., 
etc.  Cic. 

Note  -Postridie  quam  is  used  postqua/m : 

Postridie  quam  tu  es  profectus,  on  the  day  after  you  started.  Cic.  ' 


^ 1.  In  Livy  and  the  late  historians,  the  Pluperfect  or  Imperfect  Subjunctive 
IS  often  used  to  denote  repeated  action ; ® 


^ On  Temporal  Clauses.,  see  Hoffmann,  ‘ Die  Construction  der  lateinischen  Zeitparti- 
keln,’  and  Liibbert,  ‘ Die  Syntax  von  Quom.’ 

Or  post  quam  and  posted  quam. 

3 See  467,  III.,  with  1. 

4 See  469,  I. 

5 And  was  accordingly  at  the  time  a man  of  consular  rank. 

* In  this  case  the  Imperfect  Indicative  is  generally  used  in  the  principal  clause,  as  ir< 
the  example  here  given. 


292 


TEMPORAL  CLAUSES. 


Id  ubi  dixisset,  hastam  mittebat,  whenever  he  had  said  that^  he  hurled  (was 
wont  to  hurl)  a spear.  Liv. 

Note, — As  a rare  eoeception^  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  occur  after 
postquam  or  postedquam:^ 

Posleaquam  aedificasset  classes,  after  he  had  'built fleets.  Cic. 

2.  When  the  verb  is  in  the  second  person  singular  to  denote  an  indefinite 
subject,  you  — any  one.^  one.^  the  Subjunctive  is  generally  used  in  temporal 
clauses : 

Nolunt  ubi  velis,  ubi  nolis  cupiunt,  they  are  unwilling  when  you  loish  it  (when 
one  wishes  it),  when  you  are  unwilling  they  desire  it.  Ter.  Priusquam  in- 
cipias, consulto  opus  est,  before  you  begin^  there  is  need  of  deliberation.  Sail. 

RULiE  Temporal  Clauses  with  dum,  etc.^ 

619.  I.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum.^  donec.^  and  quoad^ 
in  the  sense  of  while,  as  long  as,  take  the  Indicative : 

Haec  fed,  dum  licuit,  I did  this  while  it  ivas  allowed.  Cic.  Quoad  vixit, 
as  long  as  he  lived.  Nep.  Dum  leges  vigebant,  as  long  as  the  laws  were  in 
force.  Cic.  Donee  eris  felix,  as  long  as  you  shall  be  prosperous.  Ov. 
Quamdiu  in  provincia  fuerunt,  as  long  as  they  were  in  the  province  Cic. 

II.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum.^  donec.^  and  quoad in 
the  sense  of  until,  take — 

1.  The  Indicative.^  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an 

ACTUAL  FACT  : 

Delibera  hoc,  dum  ego  redeo,  consider  this  until  I return.  Ter.  Donee 
rediit,  until  he  returned.  Liv.  Quoad  renuntiatum  est,  until  it  was  (actual- 
ly) announced.  Nep. 

2.  The  Subjunctive.^  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  some- 
thing DESIRED,  PROPOSED,  Or  CONCEIVED  ! 

Differant,  dum  defervescat  Ira,  let  them  defer  it  till  their  anger  cools 
(i.  e.,  that  it  may  cool).  Cic.  Exspectas  dum  dicat,  you  are  waiting  till  he 
speaks  (i.  e.,  that  he  may  speak).  Cic.  Ea  continebis  quoad  te  videam, 
you  will  keep  them  till  I see  you.  Cic. 

Note  1. — In  the  poets  and  the  historians,  dum  is  sometimes  used  with  the  Imperfect 
Subjunctive,  and  donee  with  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  like  cum  in  narration  : 3 

Dum  ea  gererentur,  bellum  concitur,  while  these  things  were  in  progress  (were 
done),  a war  was  commenced.  Liv.  Nihil  trepidabant  donee  ponte  agerentur,  they  did 
not  fear  at  all  while  they  w>ere  driwen  on  the  bridge.  Liv.  Donee  missi  essent,  until 
they  had  been  sent.  Liv. 

Note  2. — Donee.,  in  Tacitus,  generally  takes  the  Subjunctive : 


1 But  the  text  in  these  cases  is  somewhat  uncertain. 

2 See  p.  291,  foot-note  1.  ^ see  p.  295,  foot-note  1. 


TEMPORAL  CLAUSES. 


29d 


Bdcuus  servat  violentiam  cursus,  donec  Oceano  misceatur,  the  Rhine  preserveb  the 
vapidity  of  its  current  till  it  mingles  with  the  ocean.  Tac. 

RULE  LI.— Temporal  Clauses  with  antequam  and  prius- 
quam. 

520.  In  temporal  clauses  with  antequam  and  prius- 
quam ^ — 

I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect 
is  put — 

1.  In  the  Indicative^  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an 

ACTUAL  FACT  : 

Priusquam  lucet,  adsunt,  they  are  present  before  it  is  light.  Cic.  Ante- 
quam in  Siciliam  vem,  before  I came  into  Sicily.  Cic.  Antequam  cOgno- 
vero,^  before  I shall  have  ascertained.  Cic.  Nec  prius  respexi  quam  veni- 
mus, nor  did  I look  back  until  we  arrived.  Verg. 

2.  In  the  Subjunctive^  when  the  action  is  viewed  as 

SOMETHING  DESIRED,  PROPOSED,  Or  CONCEIVED  : 

Antequam  de  re  publica  dTcam,  exponam  consilium,  I will  set  forth  my 
plan  before  I (can)  speak  of  the  republic  (i.  e.,  preparatory  to  speaking  of 
tbe  republic).'*  Cic.  Non  prius  duces  dimittunt,  quam  ^ sit  concessum,  they 
did  not  dismiss  the  leaders  till  it  loas  granted.  Caes.  Priusquam  incipias, 
consulto  opus  est,  before  you  begin  there  is  need  of  deliberation  (i.  e.,  as 
preparatory  to  beginning).®  Sail.  Tempestas  minatur,  antequam  surgat 
the  tempest  threatens.,  before  it  rises.  Sen.  Collem,  priusquam  sentiatur, 
communit,  he  fortified  the  hill  before  it  was  (could  he)  perceived.^  Caes. 

II.  The  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect  are  put  in  the 
Subjunctive : ^ 

1 Often  written  ante  quam  and  prius  quam.,  sometimes  with  intervening  words 
between  ante  or  prius  and  quam.  See  also  p.  291,  foot-note  1. 

2 The  Future  is  used  only  in  early  Latin,  as  in  Plautus  and  Cato. 

3 Remember  that  the  Future  is  supplied  in  the  Subjunctive  by  the  Present;  see  496, 
^ Here  the  temporal  clause  involves  purpose  as  well  as  time.  Antequam  dicam  is 

nearly  equivalent  to  ut  posted  dlcam : ‘ I will  set  forth  my  views,  t?iat  I may  after- 
ward speak  of  t'he  republic.'* 

5 Remember  also  that  in  temporal  clauses  the  second  person  singular  with  an  indefi- 
nite subject,  you  = any  one.,  one.,  is  generally  in  the  Subjunctive ; see  518,  2. 

® Potential  Subjunctive  ; see  486,  III. 

’’  The  Subjunctive  in  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  tenses  is  not  always  to  be  refer- 
red to  the  same  principle.  Sometimes,  like  the  Subjunctive  after  dum^  it  is  best  ex- 
plained  as  the  Suhjwnctive  of  Purjwse,  as  in  the  first  example,  and  sometimes  like  the 
Subjunctive  of  the  historical  tenses  after  cum  ; see  p.  295,  foot-note  1. 


294 


TEMPORAL  CLAUSES. 


Non  prius  egressus  est  quam  rex  eum  in  fidem  reciperet,  he  did  not 
withdraw  until  the  king  took  him  under  his  protection.  Nep.  Priusquam 
peteret  consulatum,  insanit,  he  was  insane  before  he  sought  the  consulship. 
Liv.  Prius  visus  est  Caesar,  quam  fama  perferretur,  Caesar  appeared 
before  any  tidings  were  brought.  Caes.  Antequam  urbem  caperent,  before 
they  took  the  city.  Liv.  Priusquam  de  meo  adventu  audire  potuissent,  in 
Macedoniam  perrexi,  before  they  were  able  to  hear  of  my  approach.^  I loent 
into  Macedonia.  Cic.  Panels  ante  diebus,  quam  Syracusae  caperentur,  a 
few  days  before  Syracuse  was  taken,  Liv. 


Note  l.-When  the  principal  clause  is  negative  and  contains  an  historical  tense  the 
temporal  clause  generally  takes  the  Perfect  Indicative,  as  in  the  last  example  under  I.,  1; 
bat  it  sometimes  takes  the  Subjunctive,  as  in  the  first  example  under  II.  ' * 

Note  2 Prldie  quavn  takes  the  same  moods  as  priusquam  : 

Pridie  quam  scripsi,  the  day  before  I icrote.  Cic.  Pridie  quam  periret,  somniavit 
he  had  a dream  on  the  day  before  he  died.  Suet. 

Note  3.— For  the  Subjunctive  of  the  second  person  with  an  indefinite  subject,  see 


RULE  LII,— Temporal  Clauses  with  cum. 

521.  In  temporal  clauses  with  cum  " — " ' 

I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect 
is  put  in  the  Indicative : 


Cum  verba  faciunt,  majores  suos  extollunt,  when  they  speak,  they  extol 
their  ancestors.  Sail.  Cum  quiescunt,  probant,  while  they  are  silent  they 
approve.  Cic.  Libros,  cum  est  otium,  legere  soleo,  lohen  there  is  Ceisure, 
I am  wont  to  read  books.  Cic.  Ad  te  scribam,  cum  plus  otiT  nactus  ero,  / 
shall  write  to  you  when  I shall  have  obtained  more  leisure.  Cic.  Omnia  sunt 
incerta  cum  a jure  discessum  est,  all  things  are  uncertain  when  one  has  de- 
parted from  the  right?  Cic. 

lie  The  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect  are  put— 

1.  In  the  Indicative.^  when  the  temporal  clause  asserts 

AN  HISTORICAL  FACT  : 


Paruit  cum  necesse  erat,  he  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary?  Cic.  Non- 
dum profectus  erat,  cum  haec  gerebantur,  he  had  not  yet  started  when  these 
things  took  place.  Liv.  Turn  cum  res  magnas  permulti  amiserant,  Romae 
fides  concidit,  then,  ivhen  many  had  lost  great  fortunes,  credit  fell  at  Rome. 
Cic.  Cum  quaepiam  cohors  impetum  fecerat,  hostes  refugiebant,  whenever 
any  cohort  made  (had  made)  an  attack,  the  enemy  retreated.  Caes. 

1 See  p.  290,  foot-note  1,  with  the  works  of  Ilolfmann  and  Lubbert  there  mentioned. 

Discessum  est  is  an  Impersonal  Passive,  a departure  has  been  made  ; see  301, 1. 

3 Here  the  temporal  clause  not  only  defines  the  time  of  paruit,  but  also  makes  a 
distinct  and  separate  statement,  viz.,  it  was  necessary ; see  p.  295,  foot-note  1 ; atea 
p.  290,  foot-note  1.  » 


TEMPORAL  CLAtlSES. 


295 


2.  In  the  Subjunctive^  when  the  temporal  clause  sim- 
' py  DEFINES  THE  TIME  of  the  principal  action  : ‘ 

Cum  epistulam  complicarem,  tabellarii  venerunt,  while  I luas  folding  the 
letter  (i.  e.,  during  the  act),  the  postmen  came}  Cic.  Cum  ex  Aegypto  rever- 
teretur, decessit,  he  died  while  he  was  returning  (during  his  return)  from 
Egypt.  Nep.  Cum  dimicaret,  occisus  est,  when  he  engaged  in  battle.,  he  vkis 
slain.  Nep.  Zenonem,  cum  Athenis  essem,  audiebam  frequenter,  I of  ten 
heard  Zeno  when  I was  at  Athem.  Cic.  Cum  trldul  viam  perfecisset,  nun- 
tiatum est,  etc.,  when  he  had  accomplished  a journey  of  three  days.,  it  was  an- 
nounced., etc.  Caes.  Caesari  cum  id  nuntiatum  esset,  maturat  ab  urbe 
proficisci,  when  this  was  (had  been)  announced  to  Caesar.,  he  hastened  to  set 
out  from  the  city.  Caes. 


1)  Cum  with  the  force  of  a relative  after  tempus.,  aetas.,  and  the  like,  takes — 
(1)  Sometimes  the  Indicative.,  to  state  a fact : 

Euit  tempus,  cum  homines  vagabantur,  there  was  a time  when  men  led  a 
wandering  life.  Cic. 


Note.— Cam  is  sometimes  thus  used  without  tempus,  etc. : 

Fuit  cum  hoc  dici  poterat,  there  was  a time  when  this  could  he  said.  Liv. 

(2)  Generally  the  Subjunctive,  to  characterize  the  period: 2 
Id  saeculum  cum  plena  Graecia  poetarum  esset,  that  age  when  (such  that) 
Greece  was  full  of  poets.  Cic.  Erit  tempus,  cum  desideres,  the  time  will  come, 
when  you  will  deswe.  Cic. 

Note  1. — Cum  is  sometimes  thus  used  without  tempus,  etc. : 

Fuit  cum  arbitrarer,  there  was  a time  when  I thought.  Cic. 

Note  2. — Meminl  cum,  ‘ I remember  when,’  generally  takes  the  Indicative,  but  au- 
dio cum,  video  cum,  and  animadverto  cum,  generally  the  Subjunctive : 

Memini  cum  mihl  desipere  videbare,  I remember  when  you  seemed  to  me  to  he  un- 
wise. Cic.  Audivi  cum  diceret,  I heard  him  say  (lit.,  ivhen  he  said).  Cic. 


2)  Cum,  meaning/rom  the  time  when,  since,  takes  the  Indicative : 

Centum  anni  sunt,  cum  dictator  fuit,  it  is  one  hundred  years  since  he  was 
dictator.  Cic. 


Note  1. — Cum  . . . turn,  in  the  sense  of  ‘not  only  . . . but  also,’  ‘both  . . . and,’ 
generally  takes  the  Indicative  in  both  clauses,  but  in  the  sense  of  ‘ though  . . . yeC  the 
Subjunctive  in  the  first  clause  and  the  Indicative  in  the  second : 

Cum  antea  distinebar,  tum  hoc  tempore  distineor,  not  only  was  I occupied  before. 


^ In  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  tenses  the  choice  of  mood  often  depends  not  so 
much  upon  the  nature  of  the  thought,  as  upon  the  intention  and  feeling  of  the  writer  at 
the  moment.  If  he  wishes  to  assert  that  the  action  of  the  temporal  clause  is  an  histori- 
cal fact,  he  uses  the  Indicative  ; but  if  he  introduces  it  for  the  sole  purpose  of  defining 
the  time  of  the  principal  action,  he  uses  the  Subjunctive.  Thus,  cum  epistulam  com- 
plicarem does  not  assert  that  I folded  the  letter,  but,  assuming  that  as  admitted,  it 
makes  use  of  it  in  defining  the  time  of  venerunt.  See  also  foot-note  under  1 above ; alec 
p.  290,  foot-note  1. 

2 Like  the  Subjunctive  in  relative  clauses  after  indefinite  antecedents ; see  503, 1. 


296 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 


bat  I am  also  occupied  now,  Cic.  Quae  cum  sint  gravia,  turn  illud  acerbissimum  esti 
though  these  things  are  severe,,  that  is  the  most  grievous,  Cic. 

Note  2. — For  cum  in  Causal  clauses,  see  517. 

Note  8. — For  cum  in  Concessive  clauses,  see  515,  III. 

VIII.  Indirect  Discourse — Ordtio  Obliqua, 

/ Moods  and  Tenses  in  Indirect  Discourse. 

522.  When  a writer  or  speaker  expresses  thoughts,  whether  his 
own  or  those  of  another,  in  any  other  form  than  in  the  original 
words  of  the  author,  he  is  said  to  use  the  Indirect  Discourse — Ora- 
tio Obliqua : ^ 

Platonem  ferunt  in  Italiam  venisse,  they  say  that  Plato  came  into  Italy, 
Cic.  Kespondeo  te  dolorem  ferre  moderate,  I reply  that  you  bear  the  affliction 
with  moderation,  Cic.  Utilem  arbitror  esse  scientiam,  I think  that  knowledge 
is  useful,  Cic. 

1.  In  distinction  from  the  Indirect  Discourse — Ordtib  Ohllqua,,  the  original 
words  of  the  author  are  said  to  be  in  the  Direct  Discourse — Ordtio  Recta, 

2.  Words  quoted  without  change  belong  to  the  Direct  Discourse  : 

Eex  ‘ duumviros  ’ inquit  ‘ secundum  legem  facio,’  the  king  said,,  ‘ I appoint 
duumvirs  according  to  law.''  Liv. 

RULE  LIII.— Moods  in  Principal  Clauses. 

y 523.  The  principal  clauses  of  the  Direct  Discourse 
on  becoming  Indirect  take  the  Infinitive  or  Subjunctive 
as  follows : 

V I.  When  Declarative,  they  take  the  Infinitive  with  a 
Subject  Accusative, 

Dicebat  animos  esse  divinos,  he  was  wont  to  say  that  souls  are  divine. 
Cic.  Platonem  Tarentum  venisse  reperio,  I find  that  Plato  came  to  Taren- 
tum. Cic.  Cato  mirari  se  aiebat,  Cato  teas  wont  to  say  that  he  loondered. 
Cic.  Hippias  gloriatus  est,  annulum  se  sua  manu  confecisse,^  Hippias 
boasted  that  he  had  made  the  ring  luith  his  own  hand,  Cic. 

Note. — The  verb  on  which  the  Infinitive  depends  is  often  omitted,  or  only  implied  in 
some  preceding  verb  or  expression ; especially  after  the  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  : 

1 Thus,  in  the  first  example,  Platonem  in  Italiam  venisse  is  in  the  indirect  dis- 
course ; in  the  direct^  i.  e.,  in  the  original  words  of  those  who  made  the  statement,  it 
would  be : Plato  in  Italiam  venit. 

2 In  the  direct  discourse  these  examples  would  read — (1)  animi  sunt  dlvinl,,  (2) 
Plato  Tarentum  venit.,  (3)  miror.,  and  (4)  annulum  med  manu  confeci.  Observe  that 
the  pronominal  subjects  implied  in  nilror  and  confeci  are  expressed  with  the  Infinitive, 
as  mlrdrl  se,  se  confecisse.  But  the  subject  is  sometimes  omitted  when  it  can  be  read- 
ily supplied;  see  second  example  under  II,,  2.  below. 


0 A P.T  T-T  -mT?  ^r*.T7« 
INDIRMCT  DtSCOVRSEr  ‘ ' •'  ■*  297 


Pythia  praecepit  ut  Miltiadem  imperatorem  sumerent;  incepta  prospera  futura, 
Pyiuia  commanded  that  they  should  take  Miltiades  as  their  commander^  (telling 
them)  that  their  efforts  would  he  successful.  Nep. 

■ £,0f.  ■ 

I/' II.  When  Interrogative,  ^hey  take — 

1.  Generally  the  Subjunctive: 

Ad  postulata  Caesaris  respondit,  quid  sibi  vellet,  cur  veniret,^  to  the 
iemands  of  Caesar  he  replied^  what  did  he  iois\  lohy  did  he  corned  Caes. 


Note.— Deliberative  questions  retain  the  Subjunctive  from  the  direct  discourse: 

In  spem  venerat  se  posse,  etc. ; cur  fortunam  periclitaretur, ^ he  hoped  (had  come 
into  hope)  that  he  was  able.,  etc. ; why  should  he  try  fortune  f Caes. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Infinitive  with  a Subject  Accusative.^ 
as  in  rhetorical  questions : ^ 

Docebant  rem  esse  testimonio,  etc. ; quid  esse  levius,  etc.,  they  showed 
that  the  fact  was  a proof  (for  a proof),  etc. ; what  was  more  inconsiderate., 
etc.  ? Caes.  Respondit,  num  memoriam  deponere  posse,^  he  replied.,  could 
he  lay  aside  the  recollection  i Caes. 

III.  When  Imperative/  they  take  the  Subjunctive : 

Scribit  Labieno  cum  legione  veniat,  he  icrites  to  Labienus  to  come  (that 
he  should  come)  loiih  a legion.  Caes.  Redditur  responsum,  castris  se 
tenerent,  the  reply  was  returned  that  they  should  keep  themselves  in  camp. 
Liv.  Milites  certiores  facit,  se  reficerent,  he  directed  the  soldiers  to  refresh 
themselves.  Caes.  Orabant  ut  sibi  auxilium  ferret,  they  prayed  that  he 
would  bring  them  help.  Caes.  Nuntius  venit,  ne  dubitaret,  a message  came 
that  he  should  not  hesitate.  Nep.  Cohortatus  est,  ne  perturbarentur,^  he 
exhorted  them  not  to  he  alarmed.  Caes. 


Note. — An  affirmative  command  takes  the  Subjunctive  without  except  after  verbs 

of  wishing  and  asking,  but  a negative  command  takes  the  Subjunctive  with  ne;  see  ex- 


1 In  the  direct  discourse  these  examples  would  read— (1)  quid  tihimsf  cur  v&rns? 
and  (2)  cur  periclite/i^  ? 

2 A question  used  for  rhetorical  effect  in  place  of  an  assertion  is  called  a Rhetorical 
Question,  as  num  potest,  ‘ can  he  ? ’ = non  potest,  ‘ he  can  not  ’ ; quid  est  turpius,  ‘ what 
is  baser?  ’ = nihil  est  turpius,  ‘ nothing  is  baser.’  Here  belong  many  questions  which  in 
the  direct  form  have  the  verb  in  the  first  or  in  the  third  person.  As  such  questions  are 
equivalent  to  declarative  sentences,  they  take  the  same  construction,  the  Infinitive  with 
its  subject. 

3 Direct  discourse — (1)  qund  est  levius  = nihil  est  levius,  and  (2)  num  memoriam 
depone/re  possum  = memoriam  deponere  non  possum. 

4 Imperative  sentences  include  those  sentences  which  take  the  SuhjuncUve  of  De- 
sire; see  484. 

5 In  the  direct  discourse  these  examples  would  read— (1)  cum  legione  veni,  (2)  cas- 
tris VOS  temete,  (3)  vos  reficite,  (4)  nobis  auxilium  fer.,  (5)  rwli  dubitare,  and  (6) 
pertu/rbdti  sit  is. 


398 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 


. RUIjE  IiIV. — Moods  in  Subordinate  Clauses. 

'y'  524.  The  subordinate  clauses  of  the  Direct  Discourse 
on  becoming  Indirect  take  the  Subjunctive : 

Eespondit  se  id  quod  in  Nerviis  fecisset  facturum,^  he  replied  that  he 
luould  do  what  he  had  done  in  the  case  of  the  Nervii.  Caes.  Hippias  gloria- 
tus est,  annulum  quem  haberet  se  sua  manu  confecisse,^  Hippias  boasted 
that  he  had  made  with  his  own  hand  the  ring  which  he  wore.  Cic. 

1.  The  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  is  sometimes  used.  Thus — 

1)  In  clauses  introduced  by  the  relative  pronoun,  or  by  relative  adverbs, 
unde.^  qudre.^  when  they  have  the  force  of  principal  clauses  (453) : 

Ad  eum  defertur,  esse  civem  'Romanum  qui  quereretur,  quem  (=  et  eum) 
asservatum  esse,  it  was  reported  to  him  that  there  was  a Roman  citizen  who 
made  a complaint.^  and  that  he  had  been  placed  under  guard.  Cic.  Te  suspi- 
cor eisdem,  quibus  me  ipsum,  commoveri,  I suspect  that  you  are  moved  by  the 
same  things  as  I.  Cic. 

2)  In  clauses  introduced  by  cum.,  quam.,  quamquam.,  quia.,  and  some  other 
conjunctions,  especially  in  Livy  and  Tacitus : 

Isum  putatis,  dixisse  Antonium  minacius  quam  facturum  fuisse,  do  you 
think  Antony  spoke  more  threateningly  than  he  would  have  acted?  Cic.  Di- 
cit, se  moenibus  inclusos  tenere  eos,  quia  per  agros  vagari,  he  says  that  he 
keeps  them  shut  up  within  the  walls.,  because  (otherwise)  they  would  wander 
through  the  fields.  Liv.  See  also  535,  I.,  5 and  6. 

2.  The  Indicative  is  used — 

1)  In  parenthetical  and  explanatory  clauses  introduced  into  the  Indirect 
Discourse  without  strictly  forming  a part  of  it : 

Referunt  silvam  esse,  quae  appellatur  Bacenis, ^ they  report  that  there  is  a 
forest  which  is  called  Bacenis.  Caes.  Audio  Gellium  philosophos  qui  tune 
erant  3 convocasse,  I hear  that  Gellius  called  together  the  philosophers  of  that 
day  (lit.,  who  then  were).  Cic. 

2)  Sometimes  in  clauses  not  parenthetical,  to  give  prominence  to  the  fact 
stated,  especially  in  relative  and  temporal  clauses : 

Certior  factus  est  ex  ea  parte  vici,  quam  Gallis  concesserat,  omnes  disces- 
sisse, he  was  inf  ormed  that  all  had  withdraivn  from  that  part  of  the  village 
which  he  had  assigned  to  the  Gauls.  Caes.  Dicunt  ilium  diem  clarissiipaum 
fuisse  cum  domum  reductus  est  a patribus,  they  say  that  the  day  when  he  was 
conducted  home  by  the  fathers  was  the  most  illustrious.  Cic. 

525.  Tenses  in  the  Indirect  Discourse  generally  conform 
to  the  ordinary  rules  for  the  use  of  tenses  in  the  Subjunctive  and^ 
Infinitive ; ^ but  notice  the  following  special  points : 

1 Direct,  faciam  id  quod  in  Nerxilsfecl. 

2 Direct,  an/nulum  quern  hdbeo  mea,  manu  cbnfml. 

3 These  clauses,  quae  appellatur  Bacenis  and  qul  tunc  erant.,  are  not  strictly  parts 
of  the  general  report,  but  explanations  added  by  the  narrator. 

^ See  490-496  and  537. 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 


299 


/ 1.  The  Present  and  Perfect  may  be  used  even  after  an  historical  tense, 
^ to  impart  a more  lively  effect  to  the  narrative : 

Caesar  respondit,  si  obsides  sibi  dentur,  sese  pacem  esse  facturum,  Caesar 
replied^  that  if  hostages  should  le  given  him.,  he  would  make  peace.  Caes.  Ex- 
itus fuit  orationis,  neque  ullos  vacare  agros,  qui  dari  possint,  the  close  of  the 
oration  was.,  that  there  were  (are)  not  any  lands  unoccupied  which  could  (can) 
le  given.  Caes. 

C 2.  The  Future  Perfect  in  a subordinate  clause  of  the  direct  discourse 
!s  changed  in  the  indirect  into  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  after  a principal 
tense,  and  into  the  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  after  an  historical  tense: 

Agunt  ut  dimicent ; ibi  imperium  fore,  unde  victoria  fuerit,  they  arrange 
that  they  shall  fight ; that  the  sovereignty  shall  he  on  the  side  which  shall  win 
the  victory  (whence  the  victory  may  have  been).  Liv.  Apparebat  regnaturum 
qui  vicisset,!  it  was  evident  that  he  would  be  king  who  should  conquer.  Liv. 

Note. — For  Tenses  in  Conditional  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse,  see  587. 

Pronouns  and  Persons  in  Indirect  Discourse. 

626.  In  passing  from  the  Direct  Discourse  to  the  Indirect, 
pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  are  generally  changed  to 
pronouns  of  the  third  person,^  and  the  first  and  second  persons  of 
verbs  are  generally  changed  to  the  third  person  : 

Gloriatus  est,  annulum  se  sua  manu  conffccisse,^  he  boasted  that  he  had  made 
the  ring  with  his  own  hand.  Cic.  Eeddituf  responsum,  castris  se  tenerent,^ 
the  reply  was  returned  that  they  should  keep  themselves  in  camp.  Liv.  Ee- 
' spondit,  si  obsides  ab  iis  sibi  dentur,  sese  cum  iis  pacem  esse  facturum, ® he 
replied  that  if  hostages  should  be  given  to  him  by  them.,  he  would  make  peace 
with  them.  Caes. 

Conditional  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse. 

527.  Conditional  sentences,  in  passing  from  the  Direct  Dis- 
course to  the  Indirect,  undergo  the  following  changes : 

! In  the  direct  discourse— (1)  ibl  imperium  erit.,  unde  victoria  fuerit.,  and  (2)  reg- 
nabit qul  vicerit. 

2 Thus— (1)  ego  is  changed  to  sui.,  sib\  etc.,  or  to  ipse;  mens  and  nosier  to  suus  ; (2) 
tu  to  is  or  ille.,  sometimes  to  sul.,  etc. ; tuus  and  vester  to  suus  or  to  the  Genitive  of  is  ; 
and  (^3)  hlc  and  iste  to  ilie.  But  the  pronoun  of  the  first  person  may  of  course  be  used 
in  the  indirect  discourse  in  reference  to  the  reporter  or  author.,  and  the  pronoun  of  the 
second  person  in  reference  to  the  person  addressed:  Adfirmavl  quidvis  one  perpessu- 
rum, I asserted  that  I would  endure  anything.  Cic.  Respondeo  te  dolorem  ferre  mode- 
rate, I reply  that  you  bear  the  affliction  with  moderation.  Cic. 

3 Direct,  annuhim  ego  oned  manu  confect.  Ego  becomes  se,  and  wed,  sud. 

^ Direct,  castr'is  vns  tenete.  Vos  becomes  and  tenete^  tenerent. 

® Direct,  si  obsides  d vbbls  mild  dabuntur.,  voblscuon  pdeem  facia/m.  A vbbls 
becomes  ab  its;  onihi  becomes  sibi;  vobtscoim.,  cum  its;  and  the  implied  subject  o1 
faciam  becomes  sese,  the  subject  of  esse  facturum. 


BOO 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 


I.  In  the  First  Form,  the  Indicative  is  changed  to  the  Subjunctive  in  the 
condition  and  to  the  Infinitive  in  the  conclusion : 

Kespondit,  si  quid  Caesar  se  velit,  ilium  ad  se  venire  oportere, i he  replied.^ 
if  Caesar  wished  anything  of  him.,  he  ought  to  come  to  him.  Caes. 

Note. — In  all  forms  of  conditional  sentences  the  conclusion,  when  imperative.,  and 
generally  when  interrogative.,  takes  the  Subjunctive  according  to  533  : 

Eesponderunt,  si  non  aequum  existimaret,  etc.,  cur  postulare t,2  etc.,  they  replied.,  if 
he  did  not  think  it  fair.,  eta..,  why  did  he  demand.,  etc.  Caes.  Eum  certiorem  fece- 
runt, si  suas  res  manere  vellet,  Alcibiadem  persequeretur,^  they  informed  him  that  if 
he  wished  his  institutions  to  he  permanent,  he  should  take  measures  against  Alci- 
biades. Nep.  Die  quidnam  facturus  fueris,  si  censor  fuisses, ^ say  what  you  icould 
han)e  done,  if  you  had  been  censor.  Liv. 

II.  In  the  Second  Form,  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  the  con- 
dition remains  unchanged  after  a principal  tense,  but  may  be  changed  ^ to 
the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  after  an  historical  tense,  and  in  the  conclu- 
sion it  is  changed  to  the  Future  Infinitive : 

Eespondit,  si  stipendium  remittatur,  libenter  sese  recusaturum  populi 
Romani  amicitiam,®  he  replied  that  if  the  tribute  should  be  remitted.,  he  would 
gladly  renounce  the  friendship  of  the  Roman  people.  Caes. 

Note. — See  note  under  I. 

III.  In  the  Third  Form,  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  remains 
unchanged  in  the  condition,  regardless  of  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb, 
but  in  the  conclusion  it  is  changed  to  the  Periphrastic  Infinitive  in  -rm 
fuisse.,  rarely  to  that  in  -rus  esse : 

Respondit,  si  quid  ipsi  a Caesare  opus  esset,  sese  ad  eum  venturum  fuisse,’ 
he  replied  that  if  he  iv anted  anything  of  Caesar,  he  would  have  come  to  him. 
Caes.  Clamitabat,  si  ille  adesset,  venturos  esse,’  he  cried  out  that  they  would 
come  if  he  were  present.  Caes. 

Note  1. — In  the  conclusion,  the  periphrastic  form  futurum  fuisse  with  the  Sub- 
\unctive  is  used  in  the  Passive  voice,  and  sometimes  in  the  Active : 

Nisi  nuntii  essent  allati,  existimabant  futurum  fuisse  ut  oppidum  amitteretur,’  they 
thought  that  the  town  would  have  beem,  lost,  if  tidings  had  not  been  brought.  Caes. 

, Note  2.— In  conditional  sentences  with  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in 
the  condition,  and  with  an  historical  tense  of  the  Indicative  in  the  conclusion— 

’ Direct,  si  quid  Caesar  me  vult,  ilium  ad  me  venire  oportet.  For  change  of  pro- 
nouns see  536,  and  for  the  tense  of  velit  see  535, 1.  ' 

2 Direct,  si  non  aequum  existimas,  cur  postulas  f 

3 Direct,  si  tuds  res  manere  vis,  Alcibiadem  persequere.  Notice  change  in  the 
pronoun  and  in  the  person  of  the  verb;  see  536. 

* Direct,  quidnam  fecisses  (or  factiirusfulsti),  si  censor  fuisses. 

® But  is  often  retained  unchanged  according  to  535, 1. 

® Direct,  si  stipendium  remittatur,  libenter  recusem  populi  Bomdnl  amicitiam, 
or  sl  stipendium  remittetur,  libenter  recusdbo  popidl  Rbmdnl  amicitiam.  Observe 
that  these  two  forms  become  identical  in  the  indirect  discourse. 

’ Direct— (1)  sl  quid  mild  d Caesare  opus  esset,  ad  eum  venissem;  (2)  si  illi 
adesset,  venirent;  and  (8)  nisi  nuntil  essent  alldtl,  oppidum  amissum  esset. 


INDIRECT  CLAUSES. 


301 


1)  The  Indicative  is  generally  changed  to  the  Pe/rfect  InjmiUve : 

Memento  istam  dignitatem  te  non  potuisse  consequi,  nisi  meis  consiliis  paruisses, i 
remember  that  you  would  not  have  been  able  to  attain  that  dignit/y.,  if  you  had  not 
followed  my  counsels.  Cic. 

2)  The  Indicative  is  changed  to  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  if  the  context  requires  that 
mood : 

Quis  dubitat  quin  si  Saguntinis  tulissemus  operam,  aversuri  bellum  fuerimus,^  whc 
doubts  that  we  should  have  averted  the  wai\  if  we  had  carried  aid  to  the  Sagun- 
Unes  ? Liv.  Scimus  quid,  si  vixisset,  facturus  fuerit, ^ we  know  what  he  would  have 
done.,  if  he  had  lived.  Liv. 

Indirect  Clauses. 

528.  The  indirect  discourse  in  its  widest  application  includes — 

1.  Subordinate  clauses  containing  statements  made  on  the  authority  of 
any  other  person  than  the  writer ; see  516 : 

Omnes  libros  quos  frater  suus  reliquisset  mihi  donavit,  he  gave  to  me  all 
the  books  which  his  brother  had  leftJ^  Cic. 

2.  Indirect  questions ; see  529,  I. 

Note. — A.  clause  which  involves  a question  without  directly  asking  it  is  called  an  In- 
direct or  Dependent  Question : 

Quaesivit  salvusne  esset  clipeus,  he  asked  whether  his  shield  was  safe.^  Cic. 

3.  Many  subordinate  clauses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  or  upon  a 
Subjunctive ; see  529,  II. 

RULiE  LiV.— Moods  in  Indirect  Clauses. 

The  Subjunctive  is  used — 

I.  In  indirect  questions: 

Quaeritur,  cur  doctissimi  homines  dissentiant,  it  is  a question.,  why  the 
most  learned  men  disagree.  Cic.  Quaesieras,  nonne  putarem,  you  had  asked 
whether  I did  not  think.  Cic.  Qualis  sit  animus,  animus  nescit,  the  soul 
knows  not  what  the  soul  is.  Cic.  Quid  dies  ferat  incertum  est,  what  a day 
will  bring  forth  is  uncertain.  Cic.  Quaeritur  quid  futurum  sit,  what  vnll 
he,  is  the  question.  Cic.  Quaerit  quinam  eventus,  si  foret  bellatum,  futurus 
fuerit,  he  asks  what  would  have  been  the  resndt  if  war  had  been  waged.  Liv. 
Dubito  num  debeam,  I doubt  vjhether  I ought.  Plin.  Incerta  feror  si  Jup- 
piter velit,  I am  rendered  uncertain  whether  Jupiter  wishes.  Yerg.  Ut  te 
oblectes  scire  cupio,  I wish  to  know  how  you  amuse  yourself.  Cic.  Difiicile 

1 Direct — (1)  istam  dignitatem  consequi  non  potulsin.,  nisi  mels  consiliis  paruis- 
ses; (2)  si  Saguntinis  tulissemus  operam,  bellum  d/versurl  fuimus;  (3)  quid,  sl 
vixisset,  facturus  fuit  ? 

2 That  is,  which  he  said  his  brother  had  left. 

3 Here  no  question  is  directly  asked.  We  have  simply  the  statement,  ‘he  asked 
whether  his  shield  was  safe,’  but  this  statement  involves  the  question,  salvusne  est 
clipeus,  ‘is  my  shield  safe?’ 


302 


INDIRECT  CLAUSES, 


dictu  est  utrum  timuerint  an  dilexerint,  it  is  difficult  to  say  whether  they 
feared  or  loved.  Cic. 

II.  Often  in  clanses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  or 
upon  another  Subjunctive : 

J^'ihil  indignius  est  quam  eum  qui  culpa  careat  supplicio  non  carere, 
nothing  is  more  shameful  than  that  he  roho  is  free  from  fault  shcidd  not  he 
exempt  from  punishment.  Cic.  Utrum  difficilius  esset  negare  tibi  an  ef- 
ficere id  quod  rogares  diu  dubitavi,  whether  it  would  he  more  difficult  to  re- 
fuse your  request  or  to  do  that  which  you  ask,  I have  long  doubted.  Cic. 
Recordatione  nostrae  amicitiae  sic  fruor  ut  beate  vixisse  videar  quia  cum 
Scipione  vixerim.,  I so  enjoy  the  recollection  of  our  friendship  that  I seem  to 
have  lived  happily  because  I have  lived  with  Scipio.  Cic.  Naevium  rogat 
ut  curet  quod  dfxisset,  he  asked  Naevius  to  attend  to  that  which  he  had  men- 
tioned. Cic.  Yereor  ne,  dum  minuere  velim  laborem,  augeam,  I fear  that., 
while  I wish  to  diminish  the  labor.,  I shall  increase  it.  Cic. 

Note  1.— In  clauses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  or  upon  a Subjunctive,  observe— 

1)  That  the  Subjunctive  is  used  when  the  clauses  are  essential  to  the  general 
thought  of  the  sentence,  as  in  the  examples  just  given. 

2)  That  the  Indicative  is  used  when  the  clauses  are  in  a measure  parenthetical.,  and 
when  they  give  special  prominence  to  the  fact  stated : 

Milites  misit,  ut  eos  qui  fugerant  persequerentur,  he  sent  soldiers  to  pursue  those 
icho  had  fled  (i.  e.,  the  fugitives).  Caes.  Tanta  vis  probitatis  est,  ut  eam,  vel  in  iis  quos 
nunquam  vidimus,  diligamus,  such  is  the  force  of  integrity  that  we  love  it  even  in  those 
whom  we  have  never  seen.  Cic. 

Note  2. — In  clauses  introduced  by  dum,  the  Indicative  is  very  common,  especially  in 
the  poets  and  historians  : 

Fuere  qui,  dum  dubitat  Scaevinus,  hortarentur  Pisonem,  the/re  were  those  who  ex- 
horted Fiso,  while  Scaevinus  hesitated.  Tac.  See  also  467,  4. 

1.  Indirect  or  dependent  questions,  like  those  not  dependent  (351,  1),  are 
introduced  by  interrogative  pronouns  or  other  interrogative  words,  as  quis, 
qul,  qudlis,  etc.  ; quid,  cur,  ne,  nonne,  num ; rarely  by  si,  ‘whether,’  and  ut, 
‘ how  ’ ; see  examples  above. 

Note  1. — Si  is  sometimes  best  rendered  to  see  whether,  to  see  if,  to  try  if,  etc. . 

Te  adeunt,  si  quid  velis,  they  come  to  you  to  see  whether  you  wish  anything.  Cic. 

Note  2. — In  the  poets  si  is  sometimes  similarly  used  with  the  Indicative : 

Inspice  si  possum  donata  reponere,  examine  me  to  see  whether  I am  able  to  restore 
your  gifts.  Hor. 

Note  3.— In  indirect  questions  num  does  not  necessarily  imply  negation. 

A Note  4. — An  indirect  question  may  readily  be  changed  to  a direct  or  indepemd- 
^t  question.^ 

2.  An  Accusative,  referring  to  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject  of  the 

question,  is  sometimes,  especially  in  poetry,  inserted  after  the  principal  verb : 

£ — 

1 Thus  the  direct  question  involved  in  the  first  example  is,  c?2r  doctissimi  homines 
dissentiunt,  ‘ why  do  the  most  learned  men  disagree  ? ’ In  the  second,  nonne  putdSx 
'do  you  not  think?’  , 


0.--T.  HTNRICH8 

INDIRECT  QUESTIONS.  308 

Ego  ilium  nescio  qui  fuerit,  / do  not  Icnow  (him)  who  he  was.  Ter.  Die 
hominem  quI  sit,  tell  who  the  man  is.  Plant. 

/C  3.  Indirect  double  questions  are  generally  introduced  by  the  same  inter- 
rogative particles  as  those  which  are  direct  (353).  Thus— 

^ 1)  They  generally  take  utrum  or  -ne  in  the  first  member  and  an  in  the 
( second : 

Quaeritur  virtus  suamne  propter  dignitatem  an  propter  fructus  aliquos  ex- 
petatur, it  is  ashed  whether  rirtue  is  sought  for  its  own  worth  or  for  certain  ad- 
vantages. Cic. 

2)  But  they  sometimes  omit  the  particle  in  the  first  member,  and  take  in 
the  second  an  or  -ne  in  the  sense  of  or,  and  necne  or  an  non  in  the  sense  of 
or  not : 

Quaeritur  natura  an  doctrina  possit  efiici  virtus,  it  is  ashed  whether  virtue 
can  he  secured  hy  nature.,  or  by  education.  Cic.  Sapientia  beatos  efficiat  necne 
quaestio  est,  whether  or  not  loisdom  mahes  men  happy  is  a question.  Cic. 

Note  1.— Other  forms,  as  -ne  . . . -ne.,  an  ..  . are  rare  or  poetic: 

Qui  teneant,  hominesne  feraene,  quaerere,  to  ascertain  who  inhabit  them.,  whether 
mem  or  beasts.  Verg. 

Note  2. — An,  in  the  sense  of  whether  not,  implying  an  affirmative,  is  used  after  verbs 
and  expressions  of  doubt  and  uncertainty : dubito  an,  nescio  an,  hand  scib  an,  ‘ I doubt 
whether  not,’  ‘ I know  not  whether  not’  = ‘ 1 am  inclined  to  think’;  dubium  est  an,  in- 
certum est  an,  ‘ it  is  uncertain  whether  not  ’ = ‘ it  is  probable’ : 

Dubito  an  Thrasybulum  primum  omnium  ponam,  I doubt  whether  I should  not 
place  Thrasybulus  first  of  all  (i.  e.,  I am  inclined  to  think  I should).  Nep. 

Note  3. — An  sometimes  seems  to  have  the  force  of  aut: 

Cum  Simonides,  an  quis  alius, ^ polliceretur,  when  Simonides  or  some  other  one 
promised.  Cic. 

4.  The  Subjunctive  is  put  in  the  periphrastic  form  in  the  indirect  ques- 
tion (1)  when  it  represents  a periphrastic  form  in  the  direct  question,  and 
(2)  generally,  not  always,  when  it  represents  a Future  Indicative ; see  the 
fifth  and  sixth  examples  under  539,  I. 

5.  Indirect  Questions  must  be  carefully  distinguished — 

1)  From  clauses  introduced  by  relative  pronouns  or  relative  adverbs. 
These  always  have  an  antecedent  or  correlative  expressed  or  understood,  and 
are  never,  as  a whole,  the  subject  or  object  of  a verb,  while  indirect  ques- 
tions are  generally  so  used : 

Dicam  quod  sentio  {relative  clause).,  I will  tell  that  which  (id  quod)  Ithinh.^ 
Cic.  Dicam  quid  intellegam  {indirect  question).,  I will  tell  what  I know.  Cic. 
Quaeramus  ubi  maleficium  est,  let  iis  seeh  there  (ibi)  where  the  crime  is.  Cic. 

2)  From  direct  questions  and  exclamations : 


^ Some  critics  treat  an  quis  alius  as  a direct  question  inserted  parenthetically : or 
was  it  some  other  one  f 

2 In  the  first  and  third  examples,  quod  sentio  and  ub\  . . . est  are  not  questions,  but 
relative  clauses ; id  is  understood  as  the  antecedent  of  quod,  and  ib%  as  the  antecedent 
or  correlative  of ; but  in  the  second  example,  quid  intellegam\^  2.0.  indirect  ques- 
tion and  the  object  of  dicam:  J will  tell  (what?)  ichat  I know  (i.  e.,  will  answer  that 
question). 


304 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 


Quid  agendum  est?  nescio,  what  is  to  he  done?  I hnow  not,^  Cic.  Vide! 
quam  conversa  res  est,  see  ! hoio  changed  is  the  case.  Cic. 

3)  From  clauses  introduced  by  nescio  quis=  quldam^^  ‘ some  one,’  nescih 
quomodo  = quodammodo.,  ‘ in  some  way,’  mlrum  quantum.,  ‘ wonderfully 
much,’  ‘ wonderfully,’  etc.  These  take  the  Indicative : 

Nescio  quid  animus  praesagit,^  the  mind  forebodes.,  I hnow  not  what.  Ter. 
Id  mirurn  quantum  profuit,  this  profited.,  it  is  wonderful  how  much  (i.  e.,  U 
wonderfully  profited).  Liv. 

6.  Peksonal  Construction. — Instead  of  an  impersonal  verb  with  an  indirect 
question  as  subject,  the  personal  construction  is  sometimes  used,  as  follows  : 

Perspiciuntur  quam  sint  leves,^  it  is  seen  how  inconstant  they  are  ! Cic. 

7.  The  Indicative  in  Indirect  Questions  is  sometimes  used  in  early 
Latin  and  in  the  poets,  especially  in  Plautus  and  Terence  : 

Si  memorare  velim,  quam  fideli  animo  fui,  possum,  if  I should  wish  to 
mention  hoiu  much  fidelity  I showed.,  lam  able.  Ter. 

530.  The  directions  already  given  for  converting  the  Direct  Dis- 
course, Oratio  Recta,  into  the  Indirect,  Oratib  Ohliqua,  are  further  illus- 
trated in  the  following  passage  from  Caesar : 


Direct  Discourse. 


Indirect  Discourse. 


Caesarem  obsecrare  coepit:  ‘Ne 
quid  gravius  in  fratrem  statueris  ; scid 
illa  esse  vera,  nec  quisquam  ex  eo 
plus  quam  ego  doloris  capit,  propterea 
quod  cum  ipse  gratia  plurimum  domi 
atque  in  reliqua  Gallia,  ille  minimum 
propter  adulescentiam  poterat,  per  me 
crevit ; quibus  opibus  ac  nervis  non 
solum  ad  minuendam  gratiam,  sed 
paene  ad  perniciem  meam  utitur ; 
ego  tamen  et  amore  fraterno  et  exis- 
timatione vulgi  commoveor.  Quod  si 
quid  ei  a te  gravius  acciderit,  cum 
ipse  hunc  locum  amicitiae  apud  te 
teneam,  nemO  existimabit,  non  med 
voluntate  factum;  qua  ex  re  totius 
Galliae  animi  a me  avertentur.'' 


Caesarem  obsecrare  coepit,  ne  quid 
gravius  in  fratrem  statueret ; scire  sl 
illa  esse  vera,  nec  quemquam  ex  eo 
plus  quam  se  dolOris  capere,  propterea 
quod  cum  ipse  gratia  plurimum  domi 
atque  in  reliqua  Gallia,  ille  minimum 
propter  adulescentiam  posset,  per  se 
crevisset ; quibus  opibus  ac  nervis 
non  solum  ad  minuendam  gratiam, 
sed  paene  ad  perniciem  suam  utere- 
tur ; sesl  tamen  et  amore  fraterno  et 
existimatione  vulgi  commoveri.  Quod 
si  quid  ei  a Caesare  gravius  accidisset, 
cum  ipse  eum  locum  amicitiae  apud 
eum  teneret,  neminem  existimaturum, 
non  sua  voluntate  factum ; qua  ex  re 
futurum  uti  totius  Galliae  animi  a se 
averterentur.  Caes.,  B.  G.,  I.,  20. 


1 Quid  agendum  sit  nescio,  ‘ I know  not  what  is  to  be  done,’  would  be  an  indirect 
question. 

2 See  191,  note. 

3 Praesagit  does  not  depend  upon  nescio,  but  is  entirely  independent.  Nescio  quid 
animus  praesagiat  would  be  an  indirect  question,  and  would  mean,  I know  not  what 
the  mind  forebodes. 

^ Lit,  they  are  seen.  Observe  that  this  personal  construction  corresponds  to  the 
Active,  perspiciunt  eds  quam  sint  leves,  ‘ they  perceive  (them)  how  inconstant  they  are.’ 
See  also  ego  ilium  nescio  qul  fuerit,  5^9, 2, 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 


305 


Note. — In  this  illustration  observe  the  following*  points: 

1)  That  the  Indicative  in  the  principal  clauses  of  the  direct  discourse  is  changed  to 
the  corresponding  tense  of  the  Infinitive  in  the  indirect,  i and  that  the  Subjunctive^  sta- 
Pue/rls^  denoting  incomplete  action,  is  changed  to  the  Imperfect  Subjvmctive  after  the 
historical  tense,  coepit. 

2)  That  in  the  subordinate  clauses  the  verbs  denoting  incomplete  action  are  changed 
to  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive,  while  those  denoting  completed  action  are  changed  to  the 
Pluperfect  Subjunctive.^ 

3)  That  scib  becomes  8clre  se  (i.  e.,  that  the  subject  of  the  Infinitive  is  generally  ex- 
pressed). 

4)  That  the  pronouns  of  the  first  person  are  changed  to  reflexives;  and  that  those  of 
the  second  person  are  changed  to  is.^ 


531.  The  process  by  which  the  Indirect  Discourse,  Oratio  Ohllquay 
is  changed  to  the  Direct,  Ordtib  Recta^  is  illustrated  in  the  following  pas 
sages  from  Caesar : 


Indirect  Discourse. 

Eespondit,  transisse  Khenum  sm 
non  sud  sponte,  sed  rogatum  et  arces- 
situm a Gallis.  Se  prius  in  Galliafn 
venisse  quam  populum  Romanum. 
Quid  sibi  vellet  ? Cur  in  suas  posses- 
siones veniret?  Caes.,  B.  G.,  I.,  44. 

Ita  respondit,  eo  sibi  minus  dubi- 
tationis dari  quod  eas  res  quas  legati 
Helvetii  commemordssent  memoria  te- 
neret. Quod  si  veteris  contumeliae  ob- 
livisci vellet.^  num  etiam  recentium  in- 
juriarum memoriam  deponere  posse? 
Cum  ea  ita  sint,  tamen,  si  obsides  ab 
iis  sibi  dentur sese  cum  iis  pacem  esse 
facturum.  Caes.,  B.  G.,  I.,  14. 


Direct  Discourse. 

Eespondit : ‘ Transii  Ehenum  non 
mea  sponte,  sed  rogatus  et  arcessitus 
a Gallis.  Ego  prius  in  Galliam  veni 
quam  populus  Romanus.  Quid  tibi 
vis?  Cur  in  meas  possessiones  ve- 
nis ? ’ 

Ita  respondit:  ‘Eo  mihi  minus 
dubitationis  datur  quod  eas  res  quas 
vos.^  legati  Helvetii,  commemoravistis., 
memoria  teneo.  Quod  si  veteris  con- 
tumeliae oblivisci  voU.^  num  etiam  re- 
centium injuriarum  memoriam  de- 
ponere possum  ? Cum  haec  ita  sint, 
tamen,  si  obsides  a vobis  mihi  dabunr- 
tur^  vobiSQxim  pacem  f aciam  f 


Note.— In  these  illustrations  observe  the  following  points : 

1)  That  in  the  principal  clauses  (1)  the  Infinitmes  with  se  or  sese,  expressed  or  un- 
derstood, are  changed  to  the  first  person  of  the  Indicative  ; ^ (2)  other  Infinitives  are 
also  changed  to  the  Indicative,  but  the  person  is  determined  by  the  context ; s and  (3) 


1 Thus  scib  becomes  scire ; capit,  capere ; commoveor,  commoveri ; existimabit, 
existimaturum  (esse);  and  apertentur,  futurum  uti  avert  er  entun.  This  last  form, 
futurum  uti  averterentur,  is  the  Periphrastic  Future  Infinitive  Passive;  see  537,  3. 

2 Thus  j9o^emf  becomes  j90ssef ; utitur,  uteretur;  teneam,  teneret;  hui  crevit  be- 
comes crevisset;  acciderit,  accidisset. 

3 Thus  (1)  ego\&  changed  to  se;  me  to  se;  meam  to  suam;  med  to  sud;  and  (2) 
te  to  eum ; hunc  to  eum. 

4 Thus  transisse  sese  is  changed  to  transii ; se  venisse  to  ego  veni ; sese  esse  fac- 
turum to  faciam  ; posse,  with  se  understood,  possum. 

® Thus  minus  dari 'becomes  minus  datur;  but  if  the  subject  of  the  Infinitive  is  of 
the  second  person,  the  Indicative  will  also  be  of  that  person.  Respondeo  te  dolorem 
ferre  moderate  thus  becomes  respondeo,  ‘ dolorem  moderate  fers ; ^ see  p.  299,  foot- 
note 2. 


B06 


INFINITIVE. 


^hjunctives  are  chang-ed  to  the  Indicative  after  interrogative  words,  i and  to  the  Im 
peraUve  in  other  situations. 

2)  That  in  the  subordinate  clauses  the  Subjunctive^  unless  required  by  the  thought 
Irrespective  of  the  indirect  discourse,  is  changed  to  the  Indicative? 

3)  That  the  reflexive  pronouns  swi,  eib\  etc.,  and  8vm%  are  changed  (1)  generally  to 
pronouns  of  the  flrst  person,  but  (2)  sometimes  to  those  of  the  second  person.^ 

4)  That  is  and  ille  are  (1)  generally  changed  to  tii  or  Ale,  but  (2)  sometimes  retained. ^ 

5)  That  a noun  referring  to  the  person  or  persons  addressed  may  be  put  in  the 
Vocative  preceded  by  tu  or  vbs,^ 

SECTION  VII. 

INFINITIVE.— SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES. 

I.  Infinitive. 

532.  The  Infinitive  is  a verbal  noun  with  special  character- 
istics. Like  verbs,  it  has  voice  and  tense,  takes  adverbial  modi- 
fiers, and  governs  oblique  ..cases»-^  ^ / 

RULE  LVI.-Infinitive.  ^ 

/ 533.  Many  verbs  admit  an  Infinitive  to  complete  or 
qualify  their  meaning : 

Audeo  dicere,  I dare  say  (I  venture  to  say).  Cic.  Haec  vltare  cupimus, 
we  desire  to  avoid  these  things,  Cic.  Cdnstituit  non  progredi,  he  decided 

1 Thus  quid  vellet  is  changed  to  quid  vis  ? cur  veniret  to  cur  venls  f Vellet  and 
vmlret  are  in  the  Imperfect  simply  because  dependent  upon  an  historical  tense,  and  are 
therefore  changed  to  the  Present  in  the  direct  discourse.  In  deliberative  questions 
(484,  V.)  the  Subjunctive  is  retained  in  the  direct  discourse. 

2 Tfius  cum  legione  veniat.,  under  533,  III.,  becomes  cum  legione  venl.  The  Sub- 
junctive may  of  course  be  retained  in  the  direct  discourse  whenever  the  thought  requires 
that  mood. 

3 Thus  commemordssent.,  pluperfect  after  an  historical  tense,  is  changed  to  com- 
memord/cistis ; teneret  to  teneo;  vellet  to  volo;  dentur  to  dabuntur,  Sint  is  retained 
unchanged  because  required  in  a causal  clause  with  cum;  see  517. 

^ Thus  (1)  tramslsse  sese  is  changed  to  trdnsil,  with  subject  implied  in  the  ending; 
9ud  to  med;  se  venisse  to  ego  venl.,  with  emphatic  subject ; suds  to  meds;  sibi  to  mihi; 
sese  esse  facturum  to  faciam ; (2)  sibl  to  tib%  in  quid  sibl  vellet.  As  the  subject  of  an 
Infinitive  (536),  se  or  sese  often  corresponds  to  the  pronominal  subject  implied  in  the 
ending  of  a finite  verb;  see  p.  1ST,  foot-note  5. 

® Thus  (1)  ab  ils  is  changed  to  d vbbls;  cum  ils  to  vbblscum;  ea  ita  sint  to  haec 
ita  sint;  (2)  eds  res  is  retained. 

« Thus  legdtl  Helvetii.,  the  subject  of  commemordssent.,  is  changed  to  legdtl 
Helvetii 

Originally  the  Latin  Infinitive  appears  to  have  been  the  Dative  case  of  an  abstract 
verbal  noun,  and  to  have  been  used  to  denote  the  purpose  or  end  (384, 1,  8)  for  which 
anything  is  or  is  done.  Being  thus  only  loosely  connected  with  the  verb  of  the  sentence, 
it  readily  lost  its  special  force  as  a case  and  soon  began  to  be  employed  with  considerable 
freedom  in  a variety  of  constructions.  In  this  respect  the  history  of  the  Infinitive  resem* 


INFINITIVE, 


307 


not  to  advance,  Caeis.  Creduli  esse  coeperunt,  they  began  to  he  credulous, 
Cic.  Vincere  scis,  you  know  how  to  conquer  (you  know  to  conquer).  Liv. 
Victoria  utl  nescis,  you  do  not  knov)  how  to  use  victory.  Liv.  Latine  loqui 
didicerat,  he  had  learned  to  speak  Latin.  Sail.  Debes  hoc  rescribere,  you 
ought  to  write  this  in  reply.  Hor.  Nemo  mortem  effugere  potest,  no  one  is 
^ able  to  escape  death.  Cic.  Solent  cogitare,  they  are  accustomed  to  think.  Cic. 

^I.  The  Infinitive  is  thus  used— 

' 1.  With  Teansitive  Veebs  meaning  to  dare.,  desire.,  determine ; to  begin., 
continue.,  end  ; to  know.,  learn  ; to  owe.,  etc. ; see  examples  above. 

Note  1.— For  the  Subjunctive  with  some  of  these  verbs,  see  498, 1.,  note. 

Note  2. — See  also  498,  II.,  note  1. 

J 2.  With  Inteansitive  Veebs  meaning  to  be  able  ; to  be  wont.,  be  accustomed,f-.^ 
etc.;  see  examples  above.  ’ 

II.  In  special  'constructions  the  Infinitive  has  nearly  ^the  force  of  a 
Dative  of  Purpose  or  End — ^ 

1.  With  Intransitive  Verbs ^ 

Non  populare  penates  venimus,  we  have  not  come  to  lay  waste  your  homes. 
Verg.  Conjuravere  patriam  incendere,  they  conspired  to  destroy  their  country 
with ^re.  Sail. 

2.  With  Transitive  Verbs  in  connection  with  the  Accusative : 

Pecus  egit  altos  visere  montes,  he  drove  his  herd  to  visit  the  lofty  moun- 
tains. Hor.  Quid  habes  dicere,  what  have  you  to  say?  Cic.'  Dederat  comam 
diffundere  ventis,  she  had  given  her  hair  to  the  ivinds  to  scatter.  Verg.2 

3.  With  Adjectives  : 

Est  paratus  audire,  he  is  prepared  to  hear  (for  hearing).  Cic.  Avidi  com- 
mittere pugnam,  eager  to  engage  (for  engaging)  in  battle.  Ovid.  Fons  rivo 
dare  nomen  idoneus,  a fountain  fit  to  give  a name  to  the  river.  Hor. 

Note  1. — This  use  of  the  Infinitive  is  mostly  poetical. 

Note  2. — ^\ih.  adjectives  and  with  participles  used  as  adjectives  the  Infinitive  is 
rare  in  prose,  but  is  freely  used  in  poetry  in  a variety  of  constructions  : 

Cantare  peritus,  skilled  in  singing.  Verg.  Pelides  cedere  nescius,  Pelides  not 
kmowing  how  to  yield.  Hor.  Certa  mori,  determined  to  die.  Verg.  Dignus  describi, 
worthy  to  be  described.  Hor.  Vitulus  niveus  videri, ^ a calf  snoiv-white  to  view.  Hor. 

bles  that  of  adverbs  from  the  oblique  cases  of  nouns.  As  such  adverbs  are  often  used 
with  greater  freedom  than  the  cases  which  they  represent,  so  the  Latin  Infinitive  often 
appears  in  connections  where,  as  a Dative,  it  would  not  have  been  at  all  admissible. 
Upon  the  Origin  and  History  of  the  Indo-European  Infinitive.,  see  Jolly,  ‘ Geschichte 
des  Infiniti vs."^ 

1 In  these  constructions  the  Infinitive  retains  its  original  force  and  use;  see  533^ 
foot-note. 

In  these  examples  with  transitive  verbs  observe  that  the  Accusative  and  InfinI 
correspond  to  Accusative  and  Dative  under  384,  II.,  and  that  the  Accusative 
Dative.,  and  Infinitive  correspond  to  the  Accusative  and  two  Datives  under  390,  IL 

3 Hiveus  viderl,  like  the  Greek  Acukos  i6eV0ai. 


308 


INFINITIVE. 


Piger  scribendi  ferre  laborem,  reluctant  to  hear  the  labor  of  writing.  Hot,  Suum  of- 
ficium facere  immemor  est,  he  forgets  (is  forgetful)  to  do  his  duty.  Plaut. 

Note  3. — The  Infinitive  also  occurs,  especially  in  poetry,  with  verbal  nouns  and  with 
such  expressions  as  tempus  est.,  copia  est.,  etc. : 

Cupido  Stygios  innare  lacus,  a desire  to  sail  upon  the  Stygian  lakes.  Verg.  Qui- 
bus molliter  vivere  copia  erat,  who  had  the  means  for  liming  at  ease.  Sail.  Tempus  est 
dicere,  it  is  time  to  speak.  Oic. 

Note  4.— The  Infinitive  is  sometimes  used  with  prepositions: 

Multum  interest  inter  dare  et  accipere,  there  is  a great  difference  between  giving 
and  receiving.  Sen. 

RULE  LVII. — Accusative  and  Infinitive. 

534.  Many  transitive  verbs  admit  both  an  Accusative 
and  an  Infinitive : 

Te  sapere  docet,  he  teaches  you  to  he  wise.  Cic.  Eos  suum  adventum 
exspectare  jussit,  he  ordered  them  to  await  his  approach.  Caes.  Pontem 
jubet  rescindi,  he  orders  the  bridge  to  he  broken  down.  Caes.  Te  tua  fruT 
virtute  cupimus,  we  wish  you  to  enjoy  your  virtue.  Cic.  Sentimus  calere 
Ignem,  we  perceive  that  fire  is  hot  (we  perceive  fire  to  be  hot).  Cic.  Regem 
tradunt  se  abdidisse,  they  relate  that  the  king  concealed  himself.'^  Liv. 

Note. — In  the  compound  forms  of  the  Infinitive,  esse  is  often  omitted,  especially  in 
the  future : 

Audivi  solitum  Fabricium,  I have  heard  that  Fabricius  was  wont.  Cic.  Speramus 
vobis  profuturos,  we  hope  to  benefit  you.  Cic. 

1.  The  corresponding  Passive  is  sometimes  personal  and  sometim-es 
impersonal : ^ 

Peesonal. — Aristides  justissimus  fuisse  traditur,  Aristides  is  said  (is  re- 
ported by  tradition)  to  have  been  most  just.  Cic.  Solem  e mundo  tollere  vi- 
dentur, they  seem  to  remove  the  sun  from  the  world.  Cic.  Platonem  audivisse 
dicitur,  he  is  said  to  have  heard  Plato.  Cic.  Dii  beati  esse  intelleguntur,  the 
gods  are  understood  to  be  happy.  Cic. 

Impeesonal. — Traditum  est  Homerum  caecum  fuisse,  it  has  been  reported 

^ Observe  that  in  the  first  three  examples  the  Accusatives  te.,  eOs,  and  pontem.,  arc 
the  direct  objects  of  the  finite  verbs,  while  in  the  other  examples  the  Accusatives  te.,  ig- 
nem., and  regem.,  may  be  explained  either  as  the  direct  objects  of  the  finite  verbs,  or  as 
the  subjects  of  the  Infinitives.  The  former  was  doubtless  the  original  construction,  but 
In  time  the  object  of  the  principal  verb  came  to  be  regarded  in  many  cases  as  the  subject 
of  the  Infinitive.  Thus  was  developed  the  Subject  Accusative  of  the  Infinitive. 

2 These  two  constructions  correspond  to  the  two  interpretations  of  the  Active  men- 
tioned in  foot-note  1 above.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  Aristidem  justissimum  fuisse  tra- 
dunt., if  Aristidem  is  regarded  as  the  object  of  tradunt.,  according  to  the  original  concep- 
tion, the  corresponding  Passive  will  be  personal:  Aristides  justissimus  fuisse  traditur; 
but  if  Aristidem  is  regarded  as  the  subject  obfuisse.,  and  the  clause  Aristidem  justissi- 
mum fuisse  as  the  object  of  tradunt.,  then  the  same  clause  will  become  the  subject  of  the 
Passive,  and  the  construction  will  be  impersonal : Aristidem  justissimum  fuisse  tradi- 
tur., '■it  is  reported  by  tradition  that  Aristides  was  most  just.’ 


INFINITIVE. 


309 


by  tradition  that  Homer  was  blind.  Cic.  Unam  partem  Gallos  obtinere  dic- 
tum est,  it  has  been  stated  that  the  Gauls  occupy  one  part.  Caes.  Nuntiatur 
esse  naves  in  portu,  it  is  announced  that  the  vessels  are  in  port.  Cic. 

Note  1.— The  Personal  Construction  is  used— (1)  regularly  m jubeor.,  vetor and 
videor  ; (2)  generally  in  the  simple  tenses  ^ of  most  verbs  of  saying,  thinking,  and  the 
like,  as  dicor.,  trador.,  feror.,  nunUor.,  credor.,  existimor.,  putor.,  perJdbeor.,  etc. ; (8) 
sometimes  in  other  verbs ; see  examples  above. 

Note  2.— The  Impersonal  Construction  is  especially  common  in  the  compound 
tenses j though  also  used  in  the  simple  tenses;  see  examples  above. 

V/  535.  The  Accusative  and  an  Infinitive  are  used  with  a great 
^^variety  of  verbs.  Thus — ^ 

I.  With  verbs  of  Pekceiving  and  Declaring  : 

Sentimus  calere  ignem,  we  perceive  that  fire  is  hot.  Cic.  Mihi  narravit  te 
sollicitum  esse,  he  told  me  that  you  were  troubled.  Cic.  Scripserunt  Themis- 
toclem in  Asiam  transisse,  they  wrote  that  Themistocles  had  gone  over  to 
Asia.  Nep. 

1.  Verbs  of  Perceiving  include  those  which  involve  (1)  the  exercise  of 
\ the  senses  : audio.,  video.,  sentio.,  etc.,  and  (2)  the  exercise  of  the  mind — think- 
J iNG,  BELIEVING,  KNOWING : cogito.,  puto.,  exlstimo.,  cvMo.,  spero — intellego.,  scib.,  etc. 
y ‘y  2.  Verbs  of  Declaring  are  such  as  state  or  communicate  facts  or  thoughts : 
\dlcd.,  ndrro.,  nuntio.,  doceo.,  ostendo.,  promitto.,  etc. 

3.  Expressions  equivalent  to  verbs  of  perceiving  and  of  declaring^  as  fdma 
fieri.,  ‘report  says,’  testis  sum.,  ‘I  am  a witness’ =‘  I testify,’  conscius  mihi 
sum.,  ‘ I am  conscious,’  ‘ I know,’  also  admit  an  Accusative  with  an  Infinitive  : 

Nullam  mihi  relatam  esse  gratiam,  tu  es  testis,  you  are  a witness  (can 
testify)  that  no  gratefiul  return  has  been  made  to  me.  Cic. 

4.  Participle  for  Infinitive. — Verbs  of  perceiving  take  the  Accusative 
with  the  present  participle,  when  the  object  is  to  be  represented  as  actually 
seen,  heard,  etc.,  while  engaged  in  a given  action: 

Catonem  vidi  in  bibliotheea  sedentem,  I saw  Cato  sitting  in  the  library, 
Cic. 

5.  Subjects  Compared. — When  two  subjects  with  the  same  predicate  are 
compared,  and  the  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive  is  used  in  the  first  clause, 
the  Infinitive  may  be  understood  in  the  second : 

Platonem  ferunt  idem  sensisse  quod  Pythagoram,  they  say  that  Plato  held 
the  same  opinion  as  Pythagoras.  Cic. 

6.  Predicates  Compared. — When  two  predicates  with  the  same  subject 
are  compared,  and  the  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive  is  used  in  the  first 
clause,  the  Accusative  may  be  understood  in  the  second  : 

Num  putatis,  dixisse  Antonium  minacius  quam  facturum  fuisse,  do  you 
think  Antony  spoke  more  threateningly  than  he  would  have  acted  ^ Cic. 

Note. — But  the  second  clause  may  take  the  Subjunctive,  with  or  without  ut: 

1 The  learner  will  remember  that  the  simple  tenses  are  formed  simply  by  inflexional 
endings,  as  dicitur.,  dicebatur,  but  that  the  compound  tenses  are  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  perfect  participle  with  the  verb  sum.,  as  dictmn  est,  dictum  erat,  etc. 


310 


INFINITIVE. 


Audeo  dicere  ipsos  potius  cultores  agrorum  fore  quam  ut  coli  prohibeant,  I dare  say 
that  they  will  themselves  become  tillers  of  the  fields  rather  than  prevent  them  from 
being  tilled.  Liv. 

II.  With  verbs  of  Wishing,  Desiring,  Commanding,  and  their  op- 


Te tua  frui  virtute  cupimus,  we  desire  that  you  should  enjoy  your  virtue, 
Cic.  Pontem  jubet  rescindi,  he  orders  the  bridge  to  be  brohen  down  (that  the 
bridge  should  be  broken  down).  Caes.  Lex  eum  necari  vetuit,  the  law  for- 
bade that  he  should  be  put  to  death.  Liv. 

Note.— Several  verbs  involving  a wish  or  command  admit  the  Subjunctive  when  a 
new  subject  is  introduced,  generally  with  ut  or  ne;  see  498, 1 ; 

Opto  ut  id  audiatis,  / desire  that  you  may  hear  this.  Cic.  YolO  ut  respondeas,  1 
wish  you  would  reply.  Cic.  Malo  te  hostis  metuat,  I prefer  that  the  enemy  should 
fear  you.  Cic.  Concedo  ut  haec  apta  sint,  I admit  that  these  things  are  suitable.  Cic. 


Gaudeo  te  mihi  suadere,  I rejoice  that  you  advise  me.  Cic.  Miramur  te 
laetari,  we  wonder  that  you  rejoice.  Cic. 

Note.— Verbs  of  eimotion  feeling  often  take  clauses  with  quod  (540,  IV.)  to 
give  prominence  to  ihcfact  stated,  or  to  emphasize  the  ground  or  reason  for  the  feeling : 
Gaudeo  quod  te  interpellavi,  I rejoice  that  (or  because) interrupted  you.  Cic. 
Dolebam  quod  socium  amiseram,  I was  grieving  because  1 had  lost  a companion.  Cic. 

IV.  Sometimes,  especially  in  Poetry  and  in  Late  Prose,  with  verbs 
which  usually  take  the  Subjunctive : ^ 

Gentem  hortor  amare  focos,  1 exhort  the  race  to  love  their  homes.  Verg. 
Cuncti  suaserunt  Italiam  petere,  all  advised  to  seek  Italy.  Verg.  Soror  monet 
succedere  Lauso  Turnum,  the  sister  warns  Turnus  to  take  the  place  of  Lausus. 
Verg. 


536.  The  Infinitive  sometimes  takes  an  Accusative  as 
its  subject : ‘ 

Sentimus  calere  Ignem,  we  perceive  that  fire  is  hot.  Cic.  Platonem 
Tarentum  venisse  reperio,  I find  that  Plato  came  to  Tarentum.  Cic. 

1 As  cupio.,  opto.,  void.,  nolo.,  mdlo.,  etc.;  patior.,  sind;  impe/rd.,  jubed ; prohibed., 
vetd.,  etc. 

2 As  gauded,  doled,  mlror,  queror,  etc.;  also  aegre  ferd,  graviter ferd,  etc. 

3 Many  verbs  in  Latin  thus  admit  two  or  more  different  constructions;  see  in  the 
dictionary  adigd,  censed,  concedd,  cbgd,  cbnstitud,  contendd,  cupid,  curd,  decemd, 
died,  doced,  Uabbrd,  enitor,  facid,  impedid,  imperd,  jubed,  labbrd,  maid,  mandd,  mo- 
Uor,  moned,  nbld,  optd,  brd,  patior,  permittd,  persuaded,  postuld,  praecipid,  prae- 
died,  prohibed,  sind,  statud,  studed,  sudded,  vetd,  vided.  See  also  Draeger,  II.,  pp. 
230-416. 

^ Eemember  that  the  Infinitive,  as  a verbal  noun,  originally  had  no  subject,  but  that 
subsequently  in  special  constructions  a subject  Accusative  was  developed  out  of  the  ob- 
ject of  the  principal  verb;  see  534,  foot-note  1.  In  classical  Latin  many  Infinitives  have 
no  subjects,  either  expressed  or  understood. 


posites : 


III.  With  verbs  of  Emotion  and  Feeling  : ^ 


RULE  LVIII,— Subject  of  Infinitive. 


INFINITIVE. 


311 


/ 1.  Historical  Infinitive. — In  lively  descriptions  the  Present  Infinitive  is 
sometimes  used  for  the  Imperfect  or  the  Perfect  Indicative.  It  is  then  called 
the  Historical  Infinitive,  and,  like  a finite  verb,  has  its  subject  in  the  Nomina- 
tive : 

Catilina  in  prima  acie  versari,  omnia  providere,  multum  ipse  pugnare, 
saepe  hostem  ferire,  Catiline  was  husy  in  the  front  line  ; he  attended  to  every- 
thing., fought  much  in  person.,  and  often  smote  down  the  enemy. ^ Sail. 

Note. — The  Historical  Infinitive  sometimes  denotes  customary  or  repeated  action ; 

Omnia  in  pejus  mere  ac  retro  referri,  all  things  change  rapidly  for  the  worse  and 
are  borne  backward.  Verg. 

2.  A Predicate  Noun  or  a Predicate  Adjective  after  an  Infinitive  agrees 
with  the  noun  or  pronoun  of  which  it  is  predicated,  according  to  the  general 
rule  (363).  It  is  thus — 

1)  In  the  Nominative.,  when  predicated  of  the  principal  subject: 

Nolo  esse  laudator,  lam  unwilling  to  be  a eulogist.  Cic.  Beatus  esse  sine 
virtute  nemo  potest,  no  one  can  be  happy  without  virtue.  Cic.  Parens  dici 
potest,  he  can  be  called  a parent.  Cic. 

Note.— Participles  in  the  compound  tenses  agree  fike  predicate  adjectives  : 

Pollicitus  esse  dicitur,  he  is  said  to  hone  promised.  Cic. 

2)  In  the  Accusative.,  when  predicated  of  a noun  or  pronoun  in  the  Accusa- 
tive : 

Ego  me  Phidiam  esse  mallem,  I should  prefer  to  be  Phidias.  Cic.  Tradi- 
tum est,  Homerum  caecum  fuisse, ^ it  has  been  handed  down  by  tradition  that 
Homer  was  blind.  Cic. 

3)  In  the  Dative.,  when  predicated  of  a noun  or  pronoun  in  the  Dative : 

Patricio  tribuno  plebis  fieri  non  licebat,  it  was  not  lawful  for  a patrician 

to  be  made  tribune  of  the  people.  Cic.  Mihi  neglegenti  esse  non  licuit,^  it  was 
not  permitted  me  to  be  negligent.  Cic. 

Note. — A noun  or  adjective  predicated  of  a noun  or  pronoun  in  the  Dative  is  some- 
times put  in  the  Accusative : 

£i  consulem  fieri  hcet,  it  is  lawful  for  him  to  be  made  consul.  Caes. 

Xs537.  The  Tenses  of  the  Infinitive — Present.,  Perfect.,  and 
Future — denote  only  relative  time.  They  accordingly  represent  the 
time  respectively  as  present,  past,  or  future,  relatively  to  that  of 
the  principal  verb : 

Present. — Cupio  me  esse  clementem,  I desire  to  be  mild.  Cic.  Maluit  se 
diligi  quam  metui,  he  preferred  to  he  loved  rather  than  feared.  Nep. 

Perfect. — Platonem  ferunt  in  Italiam  venisse,  they  say  that  Plato  came 
into  Italy.  Cic.  Conscius  mihi  eram,  nihil  a me  commissum  esse,  I was  con- 
scious to  myself  that  no  offence  had  been  committed  by  me.  Cic. 

Future. — Brutum  visum  iri  a me  putO,  I think  Brutus  will  be  seen  by  me, 

^ Historical  Infinitives  are  generally  used  in  groups,  seldom  singly. 

2 Here  Phidiam  is  predicated  of  me  (lit.,  me  to  be  Phidias).^  and  caecum  of  Ho 
merum. 

3 Tribuno  is  predicated  of  patricio.,  and  neglegemtn  of  miha. 


312 


INFINITIVE. 


Cic.  Oracurum  datum  erat  victrices  Athenas  fore,  an  oracle  had  been  given^ 
that  Athens  would  be  victorious.  Cic. 

Note.— In  general,  the  Present  Infinitive  represents  the  action  as  taking  place  at  the 
time  denoted  by  the  principal  verb,  the  Perfect  as  then  completed  or  past.,  and  the  Fu- 
ture as  then  about  to  take  place ; but  tense  is  so  imperfectly  developed  in  the  Infinitive 
that  even  relative  time  is  not  marked  with  much  exactness.  Hence— 

1)  The  Presemt  is  sometimes  used  of  future  actions,  and  sometimes  with  little  or  no 
reference  to  time : 

Cras  argentum  dare  dTxit,  he  said  that  he  would  give  the  silver  to-morrow.  Ter. 

2)  The  Perfect  is  sometimes  used  oi present  actions,  though  chiefly  in  the  poets: 

Tetigisse  timent  poetam,  they  fear  to  touch  (to  have  touched)  the  poet.  Hor. 

1.  After  the  past  tenses  of  dfbeo.,  oportet.^  possum.,  and  tlie  like,  the  Pees- 

ENT  Infinitive  is  used  where  our  idiom  would  lead  us  to  expect  the  Perfect ; 
sometimes  also  after  memini.,  and  the  like ; regularly  in  recalling  what  we 
have  ourselves  experienced : -> 

Debuit  officiosior  esse,  he  ought  to  have  been  more  attentive.  Cic.  Id  potuit 
facere,  he  might  have  done  this.  Cic.  Me  Athenis  audire  memini,  f remember 
to  have  heard  (hearing)  in  Athens.  Cic. 

2.  The  Perfect  Passive  Infinitive  sometimes  denotes  the  result  of  the  ac- 
tion. Thus,  doctus  esse  may  mean  either  to  have  been  instructed  or  to  be  a 
learned  man  (lit.,  an  instructed  man).  K the  result  thus  denoted  belongs  to 
past  time,/wme  must  take  the  place  of  esse : 

Populum  alloquitur,  sopitum  fuisse  regem  ictu,  she  addresses  the  people., 
saying  that  the  Icing  was  stunned  by  the  blow.  Liv.  See  also  471,  6,  note  1. 

3.  Instead  of  the  regular  Future  Infinitive,  the  Periphrastic  Form,  futu- 
rum esse  ut.,  ox  fore  ut.,  with  the  Subjunctive,  Present  or  Imperfect,  is  fre- 
quently used : 

Spero  fore  ut  contingat  id  nobis,  I hope  this  will  fall  to  our  lot  (I  hope  it 
will  come  to  pass  that  this  may  happen  to  us).  Cic.  Non  speraverat  Hanni- 
bal, fore  ut  ad  se  deficerent,  Hannibal  had  not  hoped  that  they  would  revolt 
to  him.  Liv. 

Note  1. — This  circumlocution  is  common  in  the  Passive,  and  is  moreover  necessary 
in  both  voices  in  all  verbs  which  want  the  Supine  and  the  participle  in  rus. 

Note  2. — Sometimes  fore  w#  with  the  Subjunctive,  Perfect  or  Pluperfect,  is  used  with 
the  force  of  a Future  Perfect ; and  in  passive  and  deponent  verbs,  fore  with  the  perfect 
participle  may  be  used  with  the  same  force : 

Dico  me  satis  adeptum  fore,  I say  that  I shall  have  obtained  enough.  Cic. 

538.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a subject,  is  often  used  as 
the  subject  of  a verb 

With  Subject. — Caesari  nuntiatum  est  equites  accedere,  it  was  announced 
to  Caesar  that  the  cavalry  was  approaching.  Caes.  Facinus  est  vinciri  civem 
Eomanum,  that  a Roman  citizen  should  be  bound  is  a crime.  Cic.  Certum 

1 This  use  of  the  Infinitive  as  subject  was  readily  developed  out  of  its  use  as  object; 
see  534, 1,  foot-note.  Thus  the  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a subject,  finally  came  to  be 
regarded  as  an  indeclinable  noum,.,  and  was  accordingly  used  not  only  as  subject  and 
object.,  but  also  as  predicate  and  apposiiive  (539,  I.  and  II.),  and  sometimes  even  in 
the  Ablative  Absolute  (539,  IV.),  and  in  dependence  upon  prepositions  (533, 3,  note  4). 


INFINITIVE, 


313 


est  liberos  amari,  it  is  certain  that  children  are  lOved>  Quint.  Legem  brevem 
esse  oportet,  is  necessary  that  a law  le  brief.  Sen. 

Without  Subject. — Decretum  est  non  dare  signum,  it  was  decided  not  to 
give  the  signal.  Liv.  Ars  est  difficilis  rem  publicam  regere,  to  rule  a state  is 
a difficult  art.  Cic.  Carum  esse  jucundum  est,  it  is  pleasant  to  he  held  dear. 
Cic.  Haec  scire  juvat,  to  know  these  things  affords  pleasure.  Sen.  Peccare 
licet  nemini,  to  sin  is  lawful  for  no  one.  Cic. 

/ 1.  When  the  subject  is  an  Infinitive,  the  predicate  is  either  (1)  a noun  or 
adjective  with  sum.,  or  (2)  a verb  used  impersonally ; see  the  examples  above. 

2.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a subject,  may  be  the  subject  of  another 
Infinitive : 

Intellegi  necesse  est  esse  deos,i  it  must  he  understood  that  there  are  gods. 
Cic. 

8.  The  Infinitive  sometimes  takes  a demonstrative  as  an  attributive  in 
agreement  with  it : 

Quibusdam  hoc  displicet  philosophari,  this  philosophizing  (this  to  philos- 
ophize) displeases  some  persons.  Cic.  Vivere  ipsum  turpe  est  nobis,  to  live 
is  itself  ignoble  for  us.  Cic. 

539.  Special  Constructions. — The  Infinitive  with  a subject  ^ 
is  sometimes  used — 

I.  As  a Predicate  ; see  362  : 

Exitus  fuit  orationis  sibi  nullam  cum  his  amicitiam  esse,^  the  close  of  his 
oration  was  that  he  had  no  friendship  with  these.  Caes. 

Note. — An  Infinitive  without  a subject  may  be  used  as  a Predicate  Nominative: 

Vfvere  est  cogitare,  to  live  is  to  think.  Cic. 

II.  As  an  Appositive  ; see  363  : 

Oraculum  datum  erat  victrices  Athenas  fore,  an  oracle  had  been  given., 
that  Athens  would  be  victorious.  Cic.  Illud  soleo  mirari,  non  me  accipere 
tuas  litteras,®  I am  accustomed  to  wonder  at  this.,  that  I do  not  receive  your 
letter.  Cic. 

III.  In  Exclamations  ; see  381 : 

Te  sic  vexari,  that  you  should  be  thus  troubled!  Cic.  Mene  incepto  de- 
sistere victam,  that  /,  vanquished.,  should  abandon  my  undertaking  ! ^ Y erg. 

IV.  In  the  Ablative  Absolute  ; see  431,  note  1 : 

AuditO  Darium  movisse  pergit,  having  heard  that  Darius  had  withdrawn 
(that  Darius  had  withdrawn  having  been  heard),  he  advanced.  Curt. 

1 Esse  decs  is  the  subject  of  intelleg%  and  intellegi  esse  debs  of  est. 

* Including  the  modifiers  of  each.  Thus  in  the  example  the  whole  clause,  sib%  nul- 
lam cum  his  amicitiam  esse.,  is  used  as  a Predicate  Nominative  in  agreement  with  the 
subject  exitus;  see  363. 

® In  the  examples,  the  clause  victrices  Athenas  fore  is  in  apposition  with  oraculum, 
and  the  clause  n^  me  accipere  tuds  litteras,  in  apposition  with  illud. 

^ This  use  of  the  Infinitive  conforms,  it  will  be  observed,  to  the  use  of  the  Accusative 
and  Nominative  in  exclamations  (381,  with  note  3). 


314 


GERUNDS. 


II.  Substantive  Clauses. 

540.  In  Latin,  clauses  which  are  used  as  substantives  take  one  of 
four  forms.  They  may  be — 

I.  Indirect  Questions: 

Quaeritur,  cur  dissentiant,  it  is  asked  why  they  disagree.  Cic.  Quid  agen- 
dum sit,  nescio,  I do  not  know  what  ought  to  he  done.  Cic. 

Note. — For  the  use  of  Indirect  Questions.^  see  539, 1. 

II.  Infinitive  Clauses  : 

Antecellere  contigit,  it  was  his  good  fortune  to  excel  (to  excel  happened). 
Cic.  Magna  negotia  voluit  agere,  he  wished  to  achieve  great  undertakings,  Cic. 

Note. — For  the  use  of  Infinitive  Clauses^  see  534;  535. 

III.  Subjunctive  Clauses,  generally  introduced  by  ut,  ne,  etc. : 

Contigit  ut  patriam  vindicaret,  it  loas  his  good  fortune  to  save  his  country. 

Nep.  Vol6  ut  mihl  respondeas,  1 wish  you  would  answer  me.  Cic. 

Note.— For  the  use  of  such  Subjunctive  Clauses^  see  498;  499,  3;  501. 

IV.  Clauses  introduced  by  quod: 

Beneficium  est  quod  necesse  est  mori,  it  is  a blessing  that  it  is  necessary  to 
die.  Sen.  Gaudeo  quod  te  interpellavi,  1 rejoice  that  (because)  I have  inter- 
rupted you.  Cic. 

Note. — Quod-clauses.,  used  substantively,  either  give  prominence  to  the  fact  stated., 
or  present  it  as  a grownd  or  reason.  They  may  be  used  as  the  subjects  of  impersonal 
verbs,  as  the  objects  of  transitive  verbs,  especially  of  such  as  denote  emotion  or  feeling^ 
and  as  appositives : i 

Hue  accedebat  quod  exercitum  luxuriose  habuerat,  to  this  was  added  the  fact  that 
he  had  kept  the  army  in  luxury.  Sail.  Adde  quod  ingenuas  didicisse  artes  emollit 
mores,  add  the  fact  that  to  learn  liberal  arts  refines  manners.  Ovid.  Bene  facis  quod 
me  adjuvas,  you  do  well  that  you  assist  me.  Cic.  Dolebam  quod  socium  amiseram,  1 
was  grieving  because  I had  lost  a companion.  Cic.  See  also  535,  III.,  note. 

SECTION  VIII. 

GERUNDS,  GERUNDIVES, 2 SUPINES,  AND  PARTICIPLES. 

I.  Gerunds. 

541.  The  Gerund  is  a verbal  noun  which  shares  so  largely  the 
character  of  a verb  that  it  governs  oblique  cases,  and  takes  ad- 
verbial modifiers : 

1 Quod-clauses  occur — (1)  as  the  subject  of  accedit.,  accidit.,  apparet.,  erenit.,  fit., 
nocet.,  ohest.,  occurrit,  prodest.,  etc. ; also  of  est  with  a noun  or  adjective,  as  causa  est., 
vitium  est.,  etc.,  grdtum  est.,  indignum  est.,  mlrwm  est.,  etc.;  and  (2)  as  dependent  upon 
acewsd,  addd.,  adiceb  (p.  20,  foot-note  1),  admiror,  animadverto.,  angor,  bene  facio, 
delector,  doled,  excusd.facid.  gauded.  gldrior.  laetor,  miror,  mittd.  omitti),  praeter ed. 
queror,  cic.  They  are  sometimes  used  like  the  Accusati/ve  of  SpedJicaUon.  See  516, 
2,  note. 

2 The  Gerund  and  the  Gerundive  were  orisrinally  identical.  The  former  is  the  neu* 


GERUNDS. 


315 


Jus  vocandi  ^ senatum,  the  right  of  summioning  the  senate.  Liv.  Beat6 
Vivendi  ^ cupiditas,  the  desire  of  living  happihj.  Cic. 

Note. — In  a few  instances  the  Gerund  has  apparently  a passive  meaning: 

Neque  habent  propriam  percipiendi  notam,  nor  have  they  any  proper  mark  of  dis- 
tinction (i.  e.,  to  distinguish  them).  Cic. 

542.  The  Gerund  has  four  cases — the  Genitive^  Datire^  Accusa- 
tive^ and  Ablative — used  in  general  like  the  same  cases  of  nouns. 
Thus — 

I.  The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  is  used  with  nouns  and  adjectives:* 

Ars  Vivendi,  the  art  of  living.  Cic.  Studiosus  erat  audiendi,  he  was  de- 
sirous of  hearing.  Nep.  QwgidiXii?,  ViVidiiQndil.,  desirous  of  hearing  you.  Cic. 
Artem  vera  ac  falsa  dijudicandi,  the  art  of  distinguishing  true  things  from 
false.  Cic. 

^ Note  1. — The  Gerund  usually  governs  the  same  case  as  the  verb,  but  sometimes,  by 
virtue  of  its  suhstantwe  nature.,  it  governs  the  Genitive^  especially  the  Genitive  of  per- 
sonal pronouns — mel.,  nostrJ^  tu%  vestrl,  sui : 

Copia  placandi  tui  {of  a woman).,  an  opportunity  of  appeasing  you.  Ov.  Sul  con- 
servandi causa,  for  the  purpose  of  prese/rving  themselves.  Cic.  Vestri  adhortandi 
causa,  for  the  purpose  o/  exhorting  you.  Liv.  Reiciendi  ^ judicum  potestas,  the  power 
of  challenging  (of)  the  judges.  Cic.  Lucis  tuendi  copia,  the  privilege  of  beholding  the 
light.  Plant. 

Note  2.— The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  purpose  or  ten- 
dency : 

Leges  pellendi  claros  viros,  laws  for  (lit.,  of)  driving  away  illustrioris  men.  Tac. 

II.  The  Dative  op  the  Gerund  is  used  with  a few  verbs  and  adjectives 
which  regularly  govern  the  Dative : 

Cum  solvendo  non  essent,  since  they  were  not  able  to  pay.  Cic.  Aqua 
utilis  est  bibendo,  water  is  useful  for  drinking.  Plin. 

Note. — The  Dative  of  the  Gerund  is  rare;  with  an  object  it  occurs  only  in  Plautus. 

III.  The  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  after  a few  prepositions : ^ 

Ad  discendum  propensi  sumus,  we  are  inclined  to  learn  (to  learning).  Cic. 

Inter  ludendum,  in  or  during  play.  Quint. 

ter  of  a participle  used  substantively.,  while  the  latter  is  that  same  participle  used  adjec- 
tively.  Moreover,  from  this  participle  the  Gerund  developed  an  active  meaning  and  the 
Gerundive  s,  passive.  On  the  Origin  and  Use  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundi/ves.,  see  Jolly, 
‘Geschichte  des  Infinitivs,’  pp.  198-200  • Draeger,  II.,  pp.  789-823. 

1 Vocandi  as  a Genitive  is  governed  byyws,  and  yet  it  governs  the  Accusative  sena- 
tum ; vivendi  is  governed  by  cupiditas.,  and  yet  it  takes  the  adverbial  modifier  bedte. 

2 The  adjectives  which  take  the  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  are  chiefly  those  denoting 
DESIRE,  KNOWLEDGE,  SKILL,  RECOLLECTION,  and  their  opposites : avidus.,  cupidus.,  stu- 
diosus; conscius,  gnarus,  ignarus;  peritus,  imperitus,  insuetus,  etc. 

® Pronounced  as  if  written  rejiciendi  ; see  p.  20,  foot-note  1. 

^ According  to  Jolly,  ‘Geschichte  des  Infinitivs,’  p.  200,  the  Gerund  originally  had 
©nly  one  case,  the  Dative,  and  was  virtually  an  Infinitive. 

® Most  frequently  after  ad ; sometimes  after  inter  and  ob ; very  rarely  after  ante, 
circa,  and  in. 


316 


GERUNDIVES. 


Note  1. — The  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  with  a direct  object  is  rare : 

Ad  placandum  deos  pertinet,  it  tends  to  appease  the  gods.  Cic. 

Note  2. — The  Gerund  with  ad  often  dienoies,  purpof^e : 

Ad  imitandum  mihi  propositum  est  exemplar  illud,  that  model  has  been  set  before 
me  for  imitation.  Cic. 


IV.  The  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  (1)  as  Ablative  of  Means^ 
and  (2)  with  prepositions : * 

Mens  discendo  alitur,  the  mind  is  nourished  by  learning.  Cic.  Salutem 
hominibus  dando,  by  giving  safety  to  men.  Cic.  Virtutes  cernuntur  in 
agendo,  virtues  are  seen  in  action^  Cic.  Deterrere  a scribendo,  to  deter  from 
writing.  Cic. 

Note  1. —After  prepositions,  the  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  with  a direct  object  is  ex- 
ceedingly rare  : 

In  tribuendo  suum  cuique,  in  giving  every  one  his  own.  Cic. 

Note  2.— Without  a preposition,  the  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  denotes  in  a few  in- 
stances some  other  relation  than  that  of  means,  as  time.,  separation.,  etc. ; 

Incipiendo  refugi,  1 drew  back  in  the  very  beginning.  Cic. 


\ 


II.  Gerundives. 

543.  The  Gerundive,  like  other  participles,  agrees  with  nouns 
and  pronouns : 


Inita  sunt  consilia  urbis  delendae,  plans  have  been  formed  for  destroying  the 
city  (of  the  city  to  be  destroyed).  Cic.  Numa  sacerdotibus  creandis  animum 
adjecit,  Numa  gave  his  attention  to  the  appointment  of  priests.  Liv. 


Note.— A noun  (or  pronoun)  and  a Gerundive  in  agreement  with  it  form  the  Ge- 
rundive Construction. 


544.  The  Gerundive  Construction  may  be  used — 

1.  In  place  of  a Gerund  with  a direct  object.  It  then  takes  the  case 
of  the  Gerund  whose  place  it  supplies : 

Libido  ejus  videndi  (=  libido  eum  videndi),  the  desire  of  seeing  him  (lit., 
of  him  to  be  seen).  Cic.  Platonis  audiendi  (=  Platonem  audiendi)  studiosus, 
fond  of  hearing  Plato.  Cic.  Legendis  Oratoribus  (=  legendo  OratOres),  by 
reading  the  orators.  Cic. 

Note.— The  Gerundive  Construction  should  not  be  used  for  the  Gerund  with  a neu- 
ter pronoun  or  adjective  as  object,  as  it  could  not  distinguish  the  gender : 

Artem  vera  ac  falsa  dijudicandi,  the  art  of  distinguishing  true  things  from  false. 
Cic. 

2.  In  the  Dative  and  in  the  Ablative  with  a preposition  : 

Locum  oppidO  condendo  ceperunt,  they  selected  a place  for  founding  a city. 
Liv.  Tempora  demetendis  fructibus  accommodata,  seasons  suitable  for  gath- 
ering fruits.  Cic.  Brutus  in  liberanda  patria  est  interfectus,  Brutus  was  slain 
in  liberating  his  country.  Cic. 

1 The  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  most  frequently  after  a (ab),  c?e,  ea?  (e),  in; 
rarely  after  cum.,  pro.,  and  super. 


SUPINES. 


317 


Note  1. — The  learner  will  remember  that  in  the  Dative  (543,  II.,  note)  and  in  the 
Ablative  with  a preposition  (543,  lY.,  note  1)  the  Gerund  with  a direct  object  is  ex- 
ceedingly rare.  The  Gerundive  Construction  supplies  its  place. 

Note  2.— -The  Gerundive  Construction  sometimes  denotes  purpose  or  tendency,^  es- 
pecially in  the  Accusative  after  verbs  of  giving^  permitting,  taking,  etc. : 

Attribuit  Italiam  vastandam  (for  ad  vastandum)  Catilinae,  he  assigned  Italy  to  Cat- 
iline to  ravage  (to  be  ravaged).  Cic.  Firmandae  valetudini  in  Campaniam  concessit, 
he  withdrew  into  Campania  to  confirm  his  health.  Tac.  Haec  tradendae  Hannibali 
victoriae  sunt,  these  things  are  for  the  purpose  of  giving  victory  to  Hannibal.  Liv. 
ProficTscitur  cognoscendae  antiquitatis,  he  sets  out  for  the  purpose  of  studying  antiq- 
uity. Tac. 

Note  3.— The  Gerundive  Construction  in  the  Dative  occurs  after  certain  official 
names,  as  decemviri,  triumviri,  comitia : ^ 

Decemviros  legibus  scribendis  creavimus,  we  have  appointed  a committee  of  ten  to 
prepare  laws.  Liv. 

Note  4. — The  Gerundive  Construction  in  the  Ablative  occurs  after  comparatives : 
Nullum  officium  referenda  gratia  magis  necessarium  est,  no  duty  is  more  necessary 
thanthatof  returning  a favor.  Cic. 

Note  5. — The  Gerundive  Construction  is  in  general  admissible  only  in  transitive 
verbs,  but  it  occurs  in  utor,fruor,  fungor,  potior,  etc.,  originally  transitive  : 

Ad  munus  fungendum,  for  discharging  the  duty.  Cic.  Spes  potiundorum  castro- 
rum, the  hope  of  getting  possession  of  the  camp.  Caes. 


545.  The  Supine,  like  the  Gerund,  is  a verbal  noun.  It  has  a 
form  in  um  and  a form  in  u. 

Note  1. — The  Supine  in  um  is  an  Accusative;  that  in  u is  generally  an  Ablative, 
though  sometimes  perhaps  a Dative. ^ 

Note  2.— The  Supine  in  um  governs  the  same  case  as  the  verb : 

Legatos  mittunt  rogatum  auxilium,  they  send  ambassadors  to  ask  aid.  Caes. 


to  express  purpose  : 

Legatl  venerunt  res  repetitum,  deputies  came  to  demand  restitution.  Liv. 
Ad  Caesarem  congratulatum  convenerunt,  they  came  to  Caesar  to  congrat- 
ulate him.  Caes. 

1.  The  Supine  in  um  occurs  in  a few  instances  after  verbs  which  do  not  directly  ex- 
press motion : 

Filiam  Agrippae  nuptum  dedit,  he  gave  his  daughte/r  in  marriage  to  Agrippa. 
Suet. 

2.  The  Supine  in  um  with  the  verb  eo  is  equivalent  to  the  forms  of  the  first  Periphras- 
tic Conjugation,  and  may  often  be  rendered  literally  : 

Bonos  omnes  perditum  eunt,  they  are  going  to  destroy  all  the  good.  Sail. 

1 But  in  most  instances  the  Dative  may  be  explained  as  dependent  either  upon  the 
verb  or  upon  the  predicate  as  a whole;  see  384,  4. 

2 See  Hubschmann,  p.  223;  Draeger,  II.,  p.  833;  Jolly,  p.  201. 


III.  Supines. 


RUIiE  LIX.— Supine  in  Um. 


used  with  verbs  of  motion 


318 


PARTICIPLES. 


Note.— But  in  subordinate  clauses  the  Supine  in  um  with  the  verb  eo  is  often  used 
for  the  simple  verb : 

Ultum  Ire  (=  ulcisci)  injurias  festinat,  he  hastens  to  avenge  the  injuries.  Sail. 

8.  The  Supine  in  um  with  Irl.,  the  Infinitive  Passive  of  eo,  forms,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered (2^3,  III.,  1),  the  Future  Passive  Infinitive: 

Brutum  visum  iri  a me  put6, 1 think  Brutus  will  he  seen  by  me.  Cic. 

4.  The  Supine  in  um  is  not  very  common ; i but  purpose  may  be  denoted  by  other 
constructions : 

1)  By  ut  or  qun  with  the  Subjunctive;  see  497. 

2)  By  Gevunds  or  Gerimdives  ; see  543, 1.,  note  2,  and  III.,  note  2 ; 544,  2,  note  2. 

3)  By  Participles;  see  549,  3. 

RULE  LX. — Supine  in  u. 

547.  The  Supine  in  u is  generally  used  as  an  Ablative 
of  Specification  (424) : 

Quid  est  tarn  jucundum  auditu,  what  is  so  agreeable  to  hear  (in  hearing)  ? 
Cic.  Difficile  dictu  est,  it  is  difficult  to  tell.  Cic.  De  genere  mortis  difficile 
dictu  est,  it  is  difficult  to  speak  of  the  kind  of  death.  Cic.  Civitas  incredi- 
bile memoratu  est  quantum  creverit,  it  is  incredible  to  relate  how  much  the 
state  increased.  Sail.  Pudet  dictu,  it  is  a shame  to  tell.  Tac. 

Note. — The  Supine  in  u never  governs  an  oblique  case,  but  it  may  take  an  Ablative 
with  a preposition,  as  in  the  third  example  above. 

1.  The  Supine  in  u is  used  chiefly  with  jucundus.,  optimus;  facilis.,  proclivis.,  dif- 
ficilis ; incredibilis,  memn, orabitis ; honestus.,  turpis ; dignus.,  indignus  ; fas.,  nefas., 
opus.,  and  scelus ; rarely  with  verbs. 

2.  The  Supine  in  -w  is  very  rare.  The  most  common  examples  are  auditu.,  dictii., 
factu.,  natu.,  visu;  less  common,  cognitu.,  intellectu,  inventu,  memoratu,  relatu, 
scitu,  tractatu,  vlctu.'^ 

lY.  Participles. 

548.  The  Participle  is  a verbal  adjective  which  governs  the 
same  cases  as  the  verb  : 

Animus  se  non  videns  alia  cernit,  the  mind,  though  it  does  not  see  itself 
(lit.,  not  seeing  itself),  discerns  other  things.  Cic. 

Note  1.— 'For  Participles  used  substantively,  see  441. 

Note  2. — Participles  used  substantively  sometimes  retain  the  adverbial  modifiers 
which  belonged  to  them  as  participles,  and  sometimes  take  adjective  modifiers: 

Non  tarn  praemia  sequi  recte  factorum  quam  ipsa  recte  facta,  not  to  seek  the  rewards 
of  good  deeds  (things  rightly  done)  so  much  as  good  deeds  themselves.  Cic.  Praecla- 
rum atque  divinum  factum,  an  excellent  and  divine  deed.  Cic. 

649.  Participles  are  often  used — 

1.  To  denote  Time,  Cause,  Manner,  Means: 

1 According  to  Draeger,  II.,  p.  829,  the  Supine  in  urk^  i^ound  in  only  two  hundred 
and  thirty-six  verbs,  mostly  of  the  First  and  Third  Conjugations. 

2 According  to  Draeger,  II.,  p.  833,  the  Supine  in  u is  found  in  one  hundred  and  nine 
verbs. 


PARTICIPLES. 


319 


Plat6  scribens  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  while  writing.  Cic.  Ituri  in  proe- 
lium canunt,  they  sing  when  about  to  go  into  battle.  Tac.  Sol  oriens  diem 
conficit,  the  sun  by  its  rising  causes  the  day.  Cic.  Milites  renuntiant,  se  per- 
fidiam veritos  revertisse,  the  soldiers  report  that  they  returned  because  they 
feared  perfidy  (having  feared).  Caes. 

2.  To  denote  Condition  or  Concession  : 

Mendaci  homini  ne  verum  quidem  dicenti  credere  non  solemus,  we  are 
not  wont  to  believe  a liar.,  even  if  he  spealcs  the  truth.  Cic.  Eeluctante  natura, 
irritus  labor  est,  if  nature  opposes.,  effort  is  vain.  Sen.  Scripta  tua  jam  din 
exspectans,  non  audeo  tamen  flagitare,  though  I have  been  long  expecting  your 
work.,  yet  I do  not  dare  to  ask  for  it.  Cic. 

3.  To  denote  Purpose  : 

Perseus  rediit,  belli  casum  tentaturus,  Perseus  returned  to  try  (about  to 
try)  the  fortune  of  war.  Liv.  Attribuit  nos  trucidandos  Cethego,  he  assigned 
us  to  Cethegus  to  slaughter.  Cic. 

4.  To  supply  the  place  of  Relative  Clauses  : 

Omnes  aliud  agentes,  aliud  simulantes,  improbi  sunt,  all  who  do  one  thing 
~nd pretend  another  are  dishonest.  Cic. 


Classem  devictam  cepit,  he  conquered  and  took  the  fleet  (took  the  fleet  con- 
quered). Nep.  Ee  consentientes,  vocabulis  differebant,  they  agreed  in  fact., 
but  differed  in  words.  Cic. 

Note  1.— A participle  with  a negative  is  often  best  rendered  by  a participial  noun 
and  the  preposition  without: 

Miserum  est,  nihil  proficientem  angi,  it  is  sad  to  be  troubled  without  accomplish- 
ing anything.  Cic.  Non  erubescens,  without  blushing.  Cic. 

Note  2. — The  perfect  participle  is  often  best  rendered  by  a participial  or 
verbal  noun  with  of : 

Homerus  fuit  ante  Eomam  conditam,  Homer  lived  (was)  before  the  found- 
ing of  Rome  (before  Rome  founded).  Cic. 

550,  The  Tenses  of  the  Pakticiple — Present.,  Perfect^  and 
Future — denote  only  relative  time.  They  accordingly  represent 
the  time  respectively  as  present.,  past^  and  future  relatively  to  that 
of  the  principal  verb  : 

Oculus  se  non  videns  alia  cemit,  the  eye.,  though  it  does  not  see  itself  (not 
seeing  itself),  discerns  other  things.  Cic.  Plato  scribens  mortuus  est,  Plato 
died  while  writing.  Cic.  Uva  maturata  dulcescit,  the  grape.,  when  it  has 
ripened  (having  ripened),  becomes  sweet.  Cic.  Sapiens  bona  semper  placitura 
laudat,  the  wise  man  praises  blessings  which  will  always  please  (being  about  to 
please).  Sen. 

Note  1. — The  perfect  participle,  both  in  deponent  and  in  passive  verbs,  is  sometimes 
used  of  present  time,  and  sometimes  in  passive  verbs  it  loses  in  a great  degree  its  force 
as  a tense,  and  is  best  rendered  by  a verbal  noun ; 


6.  To  supply  the  place  of  Principal  Clauses  : 


320 


PARTICLES. 


Eisdem  ducibus  usus  Numidas  mittit,  employing  the  same  persons  as  guides^  he 
sent  the  Numidians.  Caes.  Incensas  perfert  naves,  he  reports  the  hm'ning  of  the 
ships  (the  ships  set  on  fire).  Verjj.  See  also  544. 

Note  2.— In  the  compound  tenses  the  perfect  participle  often  becomes  virtually  a 
predicate  adjective  expressing  the  result  of  the  action  : 

Causae  sunt  cognitae,  the  causes  are  known.  Caes.  See  also  471,  6,  note  1. 

Note  3. — For  the  Perfect  Participle  with  habeo.,  see  388, 1,  note. 

Note  4. — The  want  of  a perfect  active  participle  is  sometimes  supplied  by  a temporal 
clause.,  and  sometimes  by  21.  perfect  passive  participle  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  : 

Caesar,  postquam  venit,  Ehenum  transire  constituit,  Caesar.,  having  arrived.,  de- 
cided to  cross  the  Rhine.  Caes.  Equitatu  praemisso  subsequebatur,  having  sent  for- 
ward his  cavalry.,  he  followed.  Caes.  See  also  431 ; 519. 

Note  5. — The  want  of  a present  passive  participle  is  generally  supplied  by  a tem- 
poral clause : 

Cum  a Catone  laudabar,  reprehendi  me  a ceteris  patiebar,  being  praised  by  Cato.,  1 
allowed  myself  to  be  censured  by  the  others.  Cic. 


CHAPTEK  VI. 


SYNTAX  OF  PARTICLES. 


RUIiE  LiXI.— Use  of  Adverbs. 


vV  651.  Adverbs  qualify  vekbs,  adjectives,  and  other 

/ ADVERBS : 


Sapientes  feliciter  vivunt,  the  wise  live  happily.  Cic.  Facile  dOctissimuS, 
unquestionably  the  most  learned.  Cic.  Hand  aliter,  not  otherwise.  Verg. 

Note  1. — For  predicate  adverbs  with  sum^  see  360,  note  2;  for  adverbs  with 
nouns  used  adjectively,  see  441,  3;  for  adverbs  in  place  of  adjectives,  see  443,  notes 
3 and  4;  for  adverbs  with  participles  used  substantively,  see  548,  note  2. 

Note  2. — Sic  and  ita  mean  ‘so,’  ‘thus.’  Ita  has  also  a limiting  sense,  ‘in  so  far,’  as 
in  ifa—sl  (507,  8,  note  2).  Adeb  means  ‘to  such  a degree  or  result’ ; tarn.,  tantopere., 
* so  much  ’ — tarn  used  mostly  with  adjectives  and  adverbs,  and  tantopere  with  verbs. 


552.  The  common  negative  particles  are  non^  Tie,  hand. 

1.  Non  is  the  usual  negative;  ne  is  used  in  prohibitions,  wishes,  and  purposes  (483, 
3;  488;  497),  and  haud.,  in  haud  scio  an.,  and  with  adjectives  and  adverbs : haud  mi- 
rabile, not  wonderful ; haud  aliter.,  not  otherwise.  Nl  for  ne  is  rare.  Ne  non  after 
vide  is  often  best  rendered  whether. 

2.  In  non  modo  non  and  in  non  solum  non  the  second  non  is  generally  omitted  be- 
fore sed  or  verum,  followed  by  ne— quidem  or  vi'x,  (rarely  etiam),  when  the  verb  of  the 
second  clause  belongs  also  to  the  first: 

Assentatio  non  modo  amico,  sed  ne  libero  quidem  digna  est,  flattery  is  not  only  not 
worthy  of  a friend,  but  not  even  of  a free  man.  Cic. 

3.  Minus  often  has  nearly  the  force  of  non;  si  minus  = si  non.  Sin  aliter  has 
^arly  the  same  force  as  si  minus.  Minime  often  means  ' not  at  all,’  ‘by  no  means.’ 


CONJUNCTIONS. 


321 


653.  Two  Negatives  are  generally  equivalent  to  an  affirma- 
tive, as  in  English  : 

Nihil  non  arroget,  let  him  claim  everything.  Hor.  Neque  hoc  ZenO  non 
vidit,  7cor  did  Zeno  overlooh  this.  Cic. 

1.  Non  before  a general  negative  gives  it  the  force  of  an  indefinite  aflarmative,  but 
after  such  negative  the  force  of  a general  aifirmative  : 

Ndnnemd,  some  one;  nonnihil,  something ; nonnunquam,  sometimes ; 

Nemo  non,  every  one;  nihil  non,  everything ; nunquam  non,  always. 

2.  After  a general  negative,  ne— quidem  gives  emphasis  to  the  negation,  and  neque 
'—neque,  neve — neve,  and  the  like,  repeat  the  negation  distributively ; 

Non  praetereundum  est  ne  id  quidem,  we  must  not  pass  hy  even  this.  Cic.  NemO 
unquam  neque  poeta  neque  orator  fuit,  no  one  was  ever  either  a poet  or  a/n  orator.  Cic. 

Note.— For  the  Use  of  Prepositions,  see  433-435. 

554.  Coordinate  Conjunctions  unite  similar  constructions 
(309,  1).  They  comprise  five  classes. 

I.  Copulative  Conjunctions  denote  union  : 

Castor  et  Pollux,  Castor  and  Pollux:  Cic.  Senatus  populusque,  the  senate 
and  people.  Cic.  Nec  erat  difficile,  nor  was  it  difficult.  Liv. 

\ 1.  For  list,  see  310, 1. 

^/2.  Et  simply  connects ; que  implies  a more  intimate  relationship  ; atque  and  de  gen- 
erally give  prominence  to  what  follows.  Neque  and  nec  have  the  force  of  et  non.  Et 
and  etiam  sometimes  mean  even. 

Note.— and  dc  generally  mean  as,  than,  after  adjectives  and  adverbs  of  like- 
ness and  unlikeness  : tdlis  dc,  ‘ such  as  ’ ; aeque  dc,  ‘ equally  as  ’ ; aliter  atque,  ‘ other- 
wise than.’  See  also  451,  5. 

3.  Que  is  an  enclitic,  and  dc  in  the  best  prose  is  used  only  before  consonants. 

4.  Etiam,  quoque,  adeo,  and  the  like,  are  sometimes  associated  with  et,  atque,  dc, 
and  que,  and  sometimes  even  supply  their  place.  Quoque  follows  the  word  which  it 
connects : is  quoque,  ‘ he  also.’  Etiam,  ‘ also,’  ‘ further,’  ‘ even,’  often  adds  a new  cir- 
cumstance. 

5.  Sometimes  two  copulatives  are  used  ; et—et,  que— que, ^ et — que,  que—et,  que— 
atque}  tum— tum,  cum— tum,  ‘ both — and’ ; but  cum— turn  gives  prominence  to  the  sec- 
ond word  or  clause ; non  solum  (non  modo,  or  non  tantum) — sed  etiam  (verum  etiam), 
‘ not  only— but  also ’ ; neque  (nec) — neque  (nec), ‘neither— nor’;  neque  (nec)— (que;, 
‘not— but  («71c2)’;  et— neque  {nec),  ‘and  not.’ 

.i  Between  two  words  connected  copulatively  the  conjunction  is  generally  expressed, 
though  sometimes  omitted,  especially  between  the  names  of  two  colleagues.  Between 
several  words  it  is  in  the  best  prose  generally  repeated  or  omitted  altogether,  though 
que  may  be  used  with  the  last  even  when  the  conjunction  is  omitted  between  the  others  : 
pdx  et  tranquillitas  et  concordia,  ov  pax,  tranquillitds,  concordia,  or pdx,  tranquil- 
litds,  concordiaqice. 

Note  1. — Et  is  often  omitted  between  conditional  clauses,  except  before  non. 

Note  2. — A series  may  begin  with  primum  or  primo,  may  be  continued  by  deinde 
followed  by  tu/m,  posted,  praetered,  or  some  similar  word,  and  may  close  with  denique 


1 Que — que  is  rare,  except  in  poetry;  que — atque,  rare  even  in  poetry;  see  Verg, 
Aen.,  I.,  18;  Geor.,  I.,  182. 

22 


322 


CONJUNCTIONS. 


or  posi/i/'emo.^  Deinde  may  be  repeated  several  times  between  and  denique  oi 

postremo.'^ 

II.  Disjunctite  Conjunctions  denote  separation  : 

Ant  vestra  ant  sua  culpa,  either  your  fault  or  Ms  own.  Liv.  Duabus  tri- 
busve  borls,  in  two  or  three  hours.  Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  310,  2. 

2.  Aut  denotes  a stronger  antithesis  than  rel.,  and  must  be  used  if  the  one  supposition 
ex;clude8  the  other:  aut  nerum  aut  falsum.,  ‘ either  true  or  false.’  Vel  implies  a differ- 
ence in  the  expression  rather  than  in  the  thing.  It  is  generally  corrective,  and  is  often 
followed  by  potius.,  etiam.,  or  dicam : laudatur.,  rei  etiam  amatur.,  ''  he  is  praised,  or 
even  (rather)  loved.’  It  sometimes  means  eren.,  and  sometimes  for  example.  Velut 
often  means/or  example.  Ve  for  rel  is  appended  as  an  enclitic. 

Note. — In  negative  clauses  aut  and  re  often  continue  the  negation  : non  honor  aut 
virtus.,  ‘ neither  (not)  honor  nor  virtue.’ 

3.  Sire  isl — re)  does  not  imply  any  real  difference  or  opposition ; it  often  connects 
different  names  of  the  same  object : Pallas  sire  Minerra.,  ‘ Pallas  or  Minerva  ’ (another 
name  of  the  same  goddess). 

Note.— Disjunctive  conjunctions  are  often  combined  as  correlatives:  aut— aut.,  rel 
— vel.,  etc.,  ‘ either—  or.’ 

III.  Adversative  Conjunctions  denote  opposition  or  contrast  : 

Cupio  me  esse  cltoentem,  sed  me  inertiae  condemn^,  1 ivish  to  he  mild., 
hut  I condemn  myself  for  inaction.  Cic.  Magnes  ferrum  ad  se  trabit,  ratio- 
nem autem  adferre  non  possumus,  the  magnet  attracts  iron.,  but  we  can  not 
assign  a reason.  Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  310,  8. 

2.  Sed  and  rerum  mark  a direct  opposition ; autem  and  rerb  only  a transition ; at 
emphasizes  the  opposition ; atqul  often  introduces  an  objection ; ceterum  means  ‘ but 
still,’  ‘ as  to  the  rest  ’ ; tamen.,  ‘ yet.’ 

Note.— and  rerum  are  sometimes  resumptive;  see  IV.,  3,  below : 

Sed  age,  responde,  hut  come.,  reply.  Plant. 

3.  Attamen,  sedtamen,  reruntamen,  ‘but  yet,’  are  compounds  of  tamen. 

4.  Autem  and  rerb  are  postpositire,  i.  e.,  they  are  placed  after  one  or  more  words 
in  their  clauses. 

lY.  Illative  Conjunctions  denote  inference  : 

In  umbra  igitur  pugnabimus,  we  shall  therefore  fight  in  the  shade.  Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  310,  4. 

2.  Certain  other  words,  sometimes  classed  with  adverbs  and  sometimes  with  conjunc- 
tions, are  also  illatives,  as  eb,  ideb,  idcircb,  proptered,  quamohrem,  quapropter,  quare, 
qubcircd. 

3.  Igitur  generally  follows  the  word  which  it  connects:  Ale  igitur,  ‘this  one  there- 
fore.’ After  a digression,  igitu/r,  sed,  sed  tamen,  rerum,  rerum  tamen,  etc.,  are  often 
used  to  resume  an  interrupted  thought  or  construction.  They  may  often  be  rendered  ‘ I 
say’ : Sed  si  quis,  ‘if  any  one,  I say.’ 


1 For  examples,  see  Cic.,  Fam.,  XY.,  14;  Div.,  II.,  56. 

Cicero,  Inv.,  II.,  49,  has  a series  of  ten  members  in  which  prlmum  introduces  the 
first  member,  postrerrb  the  last,  and  deinde  each  of  the  other  eight. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 


323 


V.  Causal  Conjunctions  denote  cause  : 

Difficile  est  consilium,  sum  enim  solus,  counsel  is  difficult.^  for  lam  alone. 
Cic.  Etenim  jus  amant,/or  they  love  the  right.  Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  310,  5. 

2.  Etenim  and  namque  denote  a closer  connection  than  enim  and  nam. 

3.  Enim  postpositive  ; see  554,  III.,  4. 

555.  Subordinate  Conjunctions  connect  subordinate  with 
principal  constructions  (309,  2).  They  comprise  eight  classes. 

I.  Temporal  Conjunctions  denote  time  : 

Paruit  cum  necesse  erat,  he  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary.  Cic.  Dum  ego 
in  Sicilia  sum,  Cic.  See  also  311,  1 ; 518-531. 

I.  Bum  added  to  a negative  means  yet;  nondum.,  ‘not  yet*;  vixdum.,  ‘ scarcely  yet.’ 

II.  Comparative  Conjunctions  denote  comparison  : 

Ut  optasti,  ita  est,  it  is  as  you  desired.  Cic.  Velut  si  adesset,  as  if  he  were 
present.  Caes.  See  also  311,  2;  513,  II. 

1.  Correlatives  are  often  used  : Tam — quam.,  ‘ as,’  ‘ so— as,’  ‘ as  much— as  ’ ; tarn — 
quam  quod  mdxime.,  ‘as  much  as  possible’;  non  minus — quam.,  ‘not  less  than’;  non 
magis — quam.,  ‘not  more  than.’- 

Tam — quam  and  ut — ita  with  a superlative  are  sometimes  best  rendered  by  the  with 
the  comparative  : ut  mdxime — ita  mdxime.,  ‘ the  more— the  more.’ 

III.  Conditional  Conjunctions  denote  condition  : 

Si  peccavi,  ignosce,  if  I have  erred pardon  me.  Cic.  Nisi  est  consilium 
domi,  unless  there  is  wisdom  at  home.  Cic.  See  also  311,  3 ; 506-513. 

1.  Nisi.,  ‘if not,’  in  negative  sentences  often  means  ‘except’;  and  nisi  quod.,  ‘except 
that,’  may  be  used  even  in  affirmative  sentences.  Nisi  may  mean  ‘ than.’  Nihil  aliud  nisi 
— ‘nothing  further’  (more,  except) ; nihil  aliud  quam  = ‘ nothing  else’  (other  than). 

lY.  Concessive  Conjunctions  denote  concession  : 

Quamquam  intellegunt,  though  they  understand.  Cic.  Etsi  nihil  haheat, 
although  he  has  nothing.  Cic.  See  also  311,  4 ; 514;  515. 

Y.  Final  Conjunctions  denote  purpose  : 

Esse  oportet,  ut  vivas,  it  is  necessary  to  eat.,  that  you  may  Uve.  Cic.  See 
also  311,  5 ; 497-499. 

YI.  Consecutive  Conjunctions  denote  consequence  or  result  : 

Atticus  ita  vixit,  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  carissimus,  Atticus  so  lived  that 
\e  was  very  dear  to  the  Athenians.  Nep.  See  also  311,  6 ; 500-504. 

YII.  Causal  Conjunctions  denote  cause; 

Quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so.  Cic.  See  also  311,  7 ; 516 ; 517. 

YIII.  Interrogative  Conjunctions  or  Particles  denote  inquiry  or  ques- 
tion : 

Quaesieras,  nonne  putarem,  you  had  asked  whether  I did  not  think.  Cic. 
See  also  311,  8;  351-353  ; 539, 


324 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


656.  Interjections  are  sometimes  used  entirely  alone,  as  eJieu^ 

‘ alas  ! ’ and  sometimes  with  certain  cases  of  nouns;  see  381,  with 
note  3. 

557.  Various  parts  of  speech,  and  even  oaths  and  imprecations, 
sometimes  have  the  force  of  interjections : 

Pax  (peace),  he  still!  miserum,  miserabile,  sad,  lamentable!  oro,  pray ! 
age,  agite,  come,  well!  mehereules,  hy  Hercules!  per  deum  fidem,  in  the 
name  of  the  gods  ! sodes  = si  audes  (for  audies),  if  you.  will  hear! 


CHAPTER  VII. 

RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

558.  For  convenience  of  reference,  the  principal  Rules  of  Syn- 
tax are  here  introduced  in  a body. 


Agreement  op  Nouns. 


I.  A noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  the  same  person 
or  thing  agrees  with  it  in  case  (362) : 

Brutus  custos  libertatis  fuit,  Brutus  was  the  guardian  of  liberty. 


X 


II.  An  Appositive  agrees  in  case  with  the  noun  or  pronoun 
which  it  qualifies  (363)  : 

Cluilius  rex  moritur,  Cluilius  the  Icing  dies. 


Nominative. — Vocative. 

III.  The  Subject  of  a Finite  verb  is  put  in  the  Nominative  (368) : 

Servius  regnavit,  Servius  reigned. 

^ IV.  The  Name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed  is  put  in  the 
^‘Vocative  (369) : 

P&rge,  Laeli,  proceed,  Laelius. 


Accusative. 

V.  The  Direct  Object  of  an  action  is  put  in  the  Accusative 
(3T1): 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  world. 
yC  VI.  Verbs  of  making,  choosing,  calling,  regarding,  show- 
ing, and  the  like,  admit  two  Accusatives  of  the  same  person  or 
thing  (3T3) : 

Hamilcarem  imperatorem  fecerunt,  they  made  Hamilcar  commander. 


OAEI.  HINRIOBB 

RULES  OF  SYNTAX.'^  ' 325  ' 

J VII.  Borne  verbs  of  asking,  demanding,  teaching,  and  con- 
cealing admit  two  Accusatives — one  of  the  person  and  the  other 
of  the  thing  (3T1)  : 

Me  sententiam  rogavit,  he  asked  me  my  opinion. 

yill.  A verb  or  an  adjective  may  take  an  Accusative  to  define 
its  application  (3T8): 
j Capita  velamur,  we  have  our  heads  veiled. 

I IX.  Duration  of  Time  and  Extent  of  Space  are  expressed  by 
the  Accusative  (3T9) : 

Septem  et  triginta  regnavit  annos,  he  reigned  thirty-seven  years.  Quinque 
milia  passuum  ambulare,  to  walk  five  miles. 

\j  X.  The  Place  to  which  is  designated  by  the  Accusative  (380) : 
jf  I.  Generally  with  a preposition — ad  or  in : 

Legiones  ad  urbem  adducit,  he  is  leading  the  legions  to  or  toward  the  city. 

^ II.  In  names  of  towns  without  a preposition : 

Nuntius  Romam  redit,  the  messenger  returns  to  Rome. 

XI.  The  Accusative,  either  with  or  without  an  interjection,  may 
be  used  in  Exclamations  (381) : 

Heu  me  miserum,  ah  me  unhappy  ! 

Dative. 

/ XII.  The  Indirect  Object  of  an  action  is  put  in  the  Dative. 

It  is  used  (384) — 

I.  With  Intransitive  and  Passive  verbs  : 

Tibi  servio,  lam  devoted  to  you. 

II.  With  Transitive  verbs,  in  connection  with  the  Direct  Object  : 

Agros  plebi  dedit,  he  gave  lands  to  the  common  people. 

V XIII.  Two  Datives — the  object  to  which  and  the  object  or 
END  FOR  WHICH — occur  with  a few  verbs  (390) : 

I.  With  Intransitive  and  Passive  verbs : 

Malo  est  hominibus  avaritia,  avarice  is  an  evil  to  men. 

II.  With  Transitive  verbs  in  connection  with  the  Accusative  : 

Quinque  cohortes  castris  praesidio  reliquit,  he  left  five  cohorts  for  the  de- 
i fence  of  the  camp. 

\A  XIV.  With  adjectives,  the  object  to  which  the  quality  is  dh 
rected  is  put  in  the  Dative  (391) : 

Omnibus  catum  est,  it  is  dear  to  all. 


326 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


XY.  The  Dative  is  used  with  a few  ‘special  nouns  and  adverbs 
(392) : 

I.  With  a few  nouns  from  verbs  which  take  the  Dative : 

Justitia  est  obtemperatio  justice  is  obedience  to  laws. 

II.  With  a few  adverbs  from  adjectives  which  take  the  Dative : 
Congruenter  naturae  vivere,  to  live  in  accordance  with  nature. 


/Genitive. 

XYI.  Any  noun,  not  an  Appositive,  qualifying  the  meaning  of 
another  noun,  is  put  in  the  Genitive  (395) : 

Catonis  orationes,  CatoH  orations. 


Y XVII.  Many  adjectives  take  a Genitive  to  complete  their  mean- 
ing (399) : 

Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise. 

^ ‘^*"XVIII.  A noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  a different 
• person  or  thing  is  put  in  the  Genitive  (401) : 

^Omnia  hostium  erant,  all  things  belonged  to  the  enemy. 

]/  XIX.  The  Genitive  is  used  (406) — 

I.  With  misereor  and  miseresco  : 

Miserere  laborum,  pity  the  labors. 
y II.  With  recordor,  memini,  reminiscor,  and  obliviscor: 

Meminit  praeteritorum,  he  remembers  the  past.  '■ 

III.  With  refert  and  interest ; 

Interest  omnium,  it  is  the  interest  of  all. 

XX.  The  Accusative  of  the  Person  and  the  Genitive  of  the 
Thing  are  used  with  a few  transitive  verbs  (409) : 

I.  Vfith  verbs  of  reminding.,  admonishing : 

Te  amicitiae  commonefacit,  he  reminds  you  of  friendship. 

II.  With  verbs  of  accusing.,  convicting.,  acquitting'. 

Viros  sceleris  arguis,  you  accuse  men  of  crime. 

III.  With  miseret.,  paenitet.,  pudet,  taedet,  and  piget : 

Eorum  nos  miseret,  we  pity  them. 


Ablative  Proper. 

\\  XXI.  The  Place  from  which  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  (4)2): 
V I.  Generally  with  a preposition — a,  ab,  de,  or  ex : 

A.b  urbe  proficiscitur,  he  sets  outfroirt  the  city. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


327 


I/  II.  In  Names  op  Towns  without  a preposition : 

Platonem  Athenis  arcessivit,  he  summoned  Plato  from  Athens. 

\j  XXII.  Separation.  Source,  and  Cause  are  denoted  by  the  Abla- 
tive with  or  without  a preposition  (413)  : 

Caedem  a vobis  depello,  I ward  off  slaughter  from  you.  H6c  audivi  de 
parente  meo,  I heard  this  from  my  father.  Ars  utilitate  laudatur,  an  art  is, 
praised  because  of  its  usefulness. 


J XXIII.  Comparatives  without  quam  are  followed  by  the 
tive(417): 

*•— •’•^ihil  est  amabilius  virtute,  nothing  is  more  lovely  than  virtue. 


Abla- 


InSTRUMEI^TAL  AlBLATIVE. 

XXI Y.  The  Ablative  is  used  (419) — 

I.  To  denote  Accompaniment.  It  then  takes  the  preposition  cum : 
Yivit  cum  Balbo,  he  lives  with  Balbus. 

II.  To  denote  Characteristic  or  Quality.  It  is  then  modified  by  an 
Adjective  or  by  a Genitive : 

Summa  virtute  adulescens,  a youth  of  the  highest  virtue. 

III.  To  denote  Manner.  It  then  takes  the  preposition  cum,  or  is  mod- 
ified by  an  Adjective  or  by  a Genitive : 

Cum  virtute  vixit,  he  lived  virtuously. 

J XXV.  Instrument  and  Means  are  denoted  by  the  Ablative  (420) : 
Comibus  tauri  se  tutantur,  bulls  defend  themselves  with  their  horns. 

XXVI.  The  Ablative  is  used  (421) — 

I.  With  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  and  their  compounds : 
Plurimis  rebus  fruimur  et  utimur,  we  enjoy  and  use  very  many  things. 

II.  With  Verbs  and  Adjectives  of  Plenty: 

Villa  abundat  lacte,  caseo,  meile,  the  villa  abounds  in  milk.^  cheese.^  and  honey. 

III.  With  dignus,  indignus,  and  contentus : 

Digni  sunt  amicitia,  they  are  loorthy  of  friendship. 

\ XXVII.  Price  is  generally  denoted  by  the  Ablative  (422): 

V endidit  auro  patriam,  he  sold  his  country  for  gold. 

\/  XXVIII.  The  Measure  of  Difference  is  denoted  by  the  Ab- 
lative (423) : 

Uno  die  longiorem  mensem  fa^^t,  they  make  the  month  one  day  longer. 
XXIX.  A noun,  adjective,  or  verb  may  take  an  Ablative  to  de- 
fine its  application  (424)  : 

Nomine,  non  potestate,  fuit  rex,  Ji^was  king  in  name.^  not  in  power. 


328 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX, 


; Locative  Ablative. 

yXXX,  The  Place  in  which  is  denoted  (425) — 

I.  Generally  by  the  Locative  Ablative  loith  the  pi'eposition  in  : 

Hannibal  in  Italia  fait,  Hannibal  was  in  Italy. 

II.  In  Names  of  Towns  by  the  Locative^  if  such  a form  exists,  other- 
wise by  the  I^ocative  Ablative : 

\ Romae  fuit,  he  was  at  Rome. 

XXXI.  The  Time  of  an  action  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative 
(429) : 

\ Octogesimo  anno  est  mortuus,  he  died  in  his  eightieth  year. 

3&XII.  A noun  and  a participle  may  be  put  in  the  Ablative  to 
add  to  the  predicate  an  attendant  circumstance  (431) : 

Servio  regnante  viguerunt,  they  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Servius. 

Cases  with  Prepositions. 

j XXXIII.  The  Accusative  and  Ablative  may  be  used  with  prepo- 
sitions (432) : 

Ad  amicum,  to  a friend.  In  Italia,  in  Italy. 

Agreement  of  Adjectives,  Pronouns,  and  Verbs. 

^ XXXIV.  An  adjective  agrees  with  its  noun  in  gender,  num- 
ber, and  CASE  (438) : 

Fortuna  caeca  est,  fortune  is  blind. 

^ XXXV.  A pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  gender,  num- 
ber, and  PERSON  (445) : 

Animal,  quod  sanguinem  habet,  an  animal  which  has  blood. 

V XXXVI.  A finite  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  number  and 
PERSON  (460) : 

Ego  reges  ejeci,  I have  banished  Icings. 

Use  of  the  Indicative. 

V XXXVII.  The  Indicative  is  used  in  treating  of  facts  (474) : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  world. 

Moods  and  Tenses  in  Principal  Clauses. 

XXXVIII.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action  not 
AS  REAL,  but  AS  DESIRED  (483)  : 

V aleant  cives,  may  the  citizens  be  well. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


329 


XXXIX.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action  not  as 
REAL,  but  AS  POSSIBLE  (485) : 

Hie  quaerat  quispiam,  here  some  one  may  inquire. 

XL.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  commands,  exhortations,  and 
ENTREATIES  (487)  : 

J ustitiam  cole,  practice  justice. 

Moods  and  Tenses  in  Subordinate  Clauses. 

XLI.  Principal  tenses  depend  upon  principal  tenses  ; historical 
upon  historical  (491) : 

Enititur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  to  conquer. 

XLII.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  Purpose  (497) — 

I.  With  the  relative  qui,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubi,  unde,  etc, : 

Missi  sunt  qui  {=ut  U)  consulerent  Apollinem,  they  were  sent  to  consult 
Apollo. 

II.  With  ut,  ne,  qu5,  quSminus : 

Enititur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  that' he  may  conquer. 

XLIII.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  Result  (500) — 

I.  With  the  relative  qui,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubi,  unde,  cur, 
etc. : 

Non  is  sum  qui  (=  ut  ego)  his  utar,  I am  not  such  a one  as  to  use  these 
things. 

II.  With  ut,  ut  n5n,  quin : 

Ha  vixit  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  carissimus,  he  so  lived  that  he  was  very 
dear  to  the  Athenians. 

XLIV.  Conditional  sentences  with  si,  nisi,  ni,  sin,  take  (507) — 

I.  The  Indicative  in  both  clauses  to  assume  the  supposed  case : 

Si  spiritum  ducit,  vivit,  if  he  breathes.^  he  is  alive. 

II.  The  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses  to  represent 
the  supposed  case  as 

Dies  deficiat,  si  velim  causam  defendere,  the  day  would  fail  me.,  if  I should 
wish  to  defend  the  cause. 

III.  The  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses  to  rep- 
resent the  supposed  case  as  contrary  to  fact  : 

Pluribus  verbis  ad  te  scriberem,  si  res  verba  desideraret,  I should  write  tc 
you  more  fully  (with  more  words),  if  the  case  required  words. 

XLV.  Conditional  clauses  take  the  Subjunctive  (513) — 


330 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX, 


I.  With  dum,  modo,  dummodo,  ‘ if  only,’  ‘ provided  that  ’ ; dum  ne, 
modo  ne,  dummodo  ne,  ‘ if  only  not,’  ‘ provided  that  not  ’ : 

Manent  ingenia,  modo  permaneat  industria,  mental  ^powers  remain,,  if  only 
industry  remains. 

II.  With  ac  si,  ut  si,  quam  si,  quasi,  tanquam,  tanquam  si,  velut, 
velut  si,  ‘ as  if,’  ‘ than  if,’  involving  an  ellipsis  of  the  real  conclusion : 

Perinde  hahebO,  ac  si  scripsisses,  / shall  regard  it  just  as  if  (i.  e.,  as  1 
should  'A')  you  had  written, 

XLYI.  Concessive  clauses  take  (515) — 

I.  Generally  the  Indicative  in  the  best  prose,  when  introduced  by 
quamquam : 

Quamquam  intellegnint,  though  they  understand, 

II.  The  Indicative  or  Subjunctive  when  introduced  by  etsi,  etiamsi, 
tametsi,  or  si,  like  conditional  clauses  with  si  : 

Etsi  nihil  sci6  quod  gaudeam,  though  I know  no  reason  why  I should  rejoice, 

III.  The  Subjunctive  when  introduced  by  licet,  quamvis,  ut,  ne,  cum,  or 
the  relative  qul.' 

Licet  irrideat,  though  he  may  deride, 

XL VII.  Causal  clauses  with  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  quandS,  gen- 
erally take  (516) — 

I.  The  Indicative  to  assign  a VQ2i^oxL positively  on  one's  own  authority: 

Quoniam  supplicatio  decreta  est,  since  a thanksgiving  has  been  decreed, 

II.  The  Subjunctive  to  assign  a reason  doubtfully,  or  on  another's  aU‘ 
thority  : 

Socrates  accusatus  est,  quod  corrumperet  juventutem,  Socrates  was  accused, 
because  he  corrupted  the  youth. 

XLVIII.  Causal  clauses  with  cum  and  qul  generally  take  the 
Subjunctive  in  writers  of  the  best  period  (517) : 

Cum  vita  metus  plGna  sit,  since  life  is  full  of fear. 

XLIX.  In  temporal  clauses  with  postquam,  postedquam,  ub%,  ut^ 
simul  atque,  etc.,  ‘after,’  ‘when,’  ‘as  soon  as,’  the  Indicative  is 
used  (518) : 

Postquam  vidit,  etc. , castra  posuit,  he  pitched  his  camp,  after  he  saw,  etc. 

L.  I.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  in  the  sense 
of  WHILE,  AS  LONG  AS,  take  the  Indicative  (519) : 

Haec  feci,  dum  licuit,  I did  this  while  it  was  allowed, 

II.  Temporal  clauses  with  du/m,  donee,  and  quoad,  in  the  sense 
of  UNTIL,  take — ^ 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX, 


331 


1.  The  Indicative,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an  actual  fact  : 

Delibera  hoc,  dum  ego  redeo,  consider  this  until  I return. 

2.  The  Subjunctive,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  something  desired, 
PROPOSED,  or  conceived  : 

Differant,  dum  defervescat  ira,  let  them  defer  it  till  their  anger  cools. 

LI.  In  temporal  clauses  with  anteguam  and  priusquam  (520) — 

I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  is  put — 

1.  In  the  Indicative,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an  actual  fact  : 

Priusquam  lucet,  adsunt,  they  are  present  hefore  it  is  light. 

2.  In  the  Subjunctive,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  something  de- 
sired, PROPOSED,  or  CONCEIVED  : 

Antequam  de  re  publica  dicam,  hefore  I (can)  speak  of  the  republic. 

II.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  are  put  in  the  Subjunctive  : 

Antequam  urbem  caperent,  hefore  they  took  the  city. 

LII.  In  temporal  clauses  with  cum  (521) — 

I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect  is  put  in  the 
Indicative  ; 

Cum  quiSscunt,  probant,  while  they  are  silent.,  they  approve. 

II.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  are  put — 

1.  In  the  Indicative,  when  the  temporal  clause  asserts  an  historical 
fact: 

Paruit  cum  necesse  erat,  he  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary. 

2.  In  the  Subjunctive,  when  the  temporal  clause  simply  defines  the 
TIME  of  the  principal  action : 

Cum  epistulam  complicarem,  while  I was  folding  the  letter. 

LIII.  The  principal  clauses  of  the  Direct  Discourse  on  becom- 
ing Indirect  take  the  Infinitive  or  Subjunctive  as  follows  (523) : 

I.  When  Declarative,  they  take  the  Infinitive  with  a Subject  Accusative : 

Dicebat  animos  esse  divinos,  he  was  wont  to  say  that  souls  are  divine. 

II.  When  Interrogative,  they  take — 

1.  GQTiQVdWy  VnQ  Subjunctive : 

Ad  postulata  Caesaris  respondit,  quid  sibi  vellet,  cur  veniret,  to  the  de- 
mands of  Caesar  he  replied.,  what  did  he  wish.,  why  did  he  come  f 

2.  Sometimes  the  Infinitive  with  a Subject  Accusative.,  as  in  rhetorical 
questions : 

Docebant  rem  esse  testimonio,  etc. ; quid  esse  levius,  they  showed  that  the 
fact  was  a proof.,  etc.  ; wha^  'Mls  more  inconsiderate  f 


332 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


III.  When  Imperative,  they  take  the  Subjunctive : 

Scrlhit  Labieno  cum  legione  veniat,  he  writes  to  Labienus  to  “/ome  (that  he 
should  come)  with  a legion. 

LIV.  The  subordinate  clauses  of  the  Direct  Discourse,  on  be- 
coming Indirect,  take  the  Subjunctive  (524) : 

Kespondit  se  id  quod  in  Nerviis  fecisset  facturum,  he  refplied  that  he  would 
do  what  he  had  done  in  the  case  of  the  Nervii. 

LV.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  (529) — 

I.  In  indirect  questions  : 

Quaeritur,  cur  doctissimi  homines  dissentiant,  it  is  a question.,  why  the 
most  learned  men  disagree. 

II.  Often  in  clauses  dependent  upon-  an  Infinitive  or  upon  another  Sub- 
junctive : 

Nihil  indignius  est  quam  eum  qui  culpa  careat  supplicio  non  carere,  noth- 
ing is  more  shameful  than  that  he  who  is  free  from  fault  should  not  be  ex- 
empt from  punishment. 

Infinitive. 

LVI.  Many  verbs  admit  an  Infinitive  to  complete  or  qualify  their 
meaning  (533) : 

Haec  vltare  cupimus,  we  desire  to  avoid  these  things. 

LYII.  Many  transitive  verbs  admit  both  an  Accusative  and  an 
Infinitive  (534): 

Te  sapere  docet,  he  teaches  you  to  be  wise. 

LVIII.  The  Infinitive  sometimes  takes  an  Accusative  as  its  sub- 
ject (536) : 

Platonem  Tarentum  venisse  reperio,  I find  that  Plato  came  to  Tarentum. 

Supine. 

LIX.  The  Supine  in  um  is  used  with  verbs  of  motion  to  express 
PURPOSE  (546)  : 

Legati  venerunt  res  repetitum,  deputies  came  to  demand  restitution. 

LX.  The  Supine  in  u is  generally  used  as  an  Ablative  of  Speci- 
fication (54T) : 

Quid  est  tarn  jucundum  auditu,  what  is  so  agreeable  to  hear  (in  hearing)  ? 

Adverbs. 

LXI.  Adverbs  qualify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs 
(551)  ; 

Sapientes  feliciter  vivunt,  the  wise  live  happily. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS. 


333 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS  AND 
CLAUSES. 

559.  The  Latin  admits  of  great  variety  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  sentence,  thus  affording  peculiar  facilities 
both  for  securing  proper  emphasis,  and  for  imparting  to  its  periods 
that  harmonious  flow  which  characterizes  the  Latin  classics.  But 
with  all  this  freedom  and  variety,  there  are  certain  general  laws  of 
arrangement  which  it  will  be  useful  to  notice. 

I.  Arrangement  of  Words. 

General  Rules. 

^ F560.  The  Subject  followed  by  its  modiflers  occupies  the  firgj; 
place  in  the  sentence,  and  the  Predicate  preceded  by  its  modifiers 
the  last  place  : 

Sol  oriens  diem  conficit,  the  sun  rising  maTces  the  day.  Cic.  Animus  aeger 
semper  errat,  a diseased  mind  always  errs.  Cic.  Miltiades  Athenas  liberavit, 
Miltiades  liberated  Athens.  Nep. 

561.  Emphasis  and  Euphony  affect  the  arrangement  of  words. 

I.  Any  word,  except  the  subject,  may  be  made  emphatic  by  being  placed 
at  the  BEGINNING  of  the  sentence : 

Silent  leges  inter  arma,  laws  aee  silent  in  war.  Cic.  Numitori  Eemua 
deditur,  Remus  is  delivered  to  Numitor.  Liv. 

II.  Any  word,  except  the  predicate,  may  be  made  emphatic  by  being 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  sentence : 

Nobis  non  satisfacit  ipse  Demosthenes.,  even  Demosthenes  does  not  satisfy 
m.  Cic.  Consulatum  petivit  nunquam.,  he  never  sought  the  consulship.  Cic, 

III.  Two  words  naturally  connected,  as  a noun  and  its  adjective,  or  a 
noun  and  its  Genitive,  are  sometimes  made  emphatic  by  Separation  : 

Objurgationes  nonnimquam  incidunt  necessariae.,  sometimes  necessary  re- 
proofs occur.  Cic.  Justitiae  fungatur  officiis,  let  him  discharge  the  duties  of 
iustice.  Cic. 

Note.— A word  may  be  made  emphatic  by  being  placed  between  the  parts  of  a com- 
pound tense : 

\ Magna  adhibita  cura  est,  great  care  has  been  taken.  Cic. 

'A  562.  Chiasmus.^ — When  two  groups  of  words  are  contrasted, 
the  order  of  the  first  is  often  reversed  in  the  second : 


^ 9o  called  from  the  Greek  letter  X. 


834 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS. 


Fragile  corpus  animus  sempiternus  movet,  the  imperishable  soul  moves  the 
perishable  body.  Cic. 

^ 563.  Kindred  Words. — Different  forms  of  the  same  word,  or 
different  words  of  the  same  derivation,  are  generally  placed  near 
each  other: 

Ad  senem  senex  de  senectute  scripsi,  /,  an  old  man.,  wrote  to  an  old  man 
in  the  subject  of  old  age.  Cic.  Inter  se  aliis  alii  prosunt,  they  benefit  each 
>ther.  Cic. 

•xi  564.  A word  which  has  a common  relation  to  two  other  words 
connected  by  conjunctions,  is  placed— 

I.  Generally  before  or  after  both : 

Pacis  et  artes  et  gloria,  both  the  arts  and  the  glory  of  peace.  Liv.  Belli 
pacisque  artes,  the  arts  of  war  and  of  peace.  Liv. 

Note.— A Genitive  or  an  ad.iective  following  two  nouns  may  qualify  both,  but  it 
more  frequently  qualifies  only  the  latter ; 

Haec  percunctatio  ac  denuntiatio  belli,  this  inquiry  and  this  declaration  of  war.  Liv. 

II.  Sometimes  directly  after  the  first  before  the  conjunction : 

Honoris  certamen  et  gloriae,  a struggle  for  honor  and  glory.  Cic.  Agri 

omnes  et  maria,  all  lands  and  seas,  Cic. 


Special  Rules. 

\ 665.  The  Modifiers  of  a Koun  generally  follow  it. 

may  be  either  adjectives  or  nouns : 


They 


Populus  Romanus  decrevit,  the  Roman  people  decreed.  Cic.  Herodotus, 
pater  historiae,  Herodotus.,  the  father  of  history.  Cic.  Liber  de  otSciis,  the 
"book  on  duties,  Cic. 


1.  Modifiers,  when  emphatic.,  are  placed  before  their  nouns : 

Tuscus  ager  Romano  adjacet,  the  Tuscan  territory  borders  on  the  Roman.  Liv. 

2.  When  a noun  is  modified  both  by  an  Adjective  and  by  a Genitive,  the  usual  order 
is,  Adjective — Genitive — noun: 

Magna  civium  penuria,  a great  scarcity  of  citizens.  Cic. 

8.  An  adjective  is  often  separated  from  its  noun  by  a monosyllabic  preposition  : 

Magno  cum  periculo  esse,  to  be  attended  with  great  peril.  Cic. 

4.  In  the  poets  an  adjective  is  often  separated  from  its  noun  by  the  modifier  of  another 
noun : 

Insperata  tuae  veniet  pluma  superbiae,  the  une'xpected.  down  shall  come  upon  your 
pride.  Hor. 

V 566.  The  Modifiers  of  an  Adjective  generally  precede  it, 
but,  if  not  adverbs,  they  may  follow  it : 

Facile  doctissimus,  unquestionably  the  most  learned.  Cic.  Omni  aetatl 
communis,  common  to  every  age.  Cic.  Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise, 
Cic. 

^ 567.  The  Modifiers  of  a Verb  generally  precede  it : 


335 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS:  '' 


Gloria  virtutem  sequitur,  glory  follows  virtue.  Cic.  Mundus  deo  paret, 
the  world  is  subject  to  God.  Cic.  V ehementer  dixdt,  he  spoke  vehemently.  Cic. 

1.  When  the  verb  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  the  modifiers,  of  course, 
follow;  see  the  first  example  under  561,  I. 

2.  An  emphatic  modifier  may  of  course  stand  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence  (561): 

Facillime  cognoscuntur  adulescentes,  most  easily  are  the  young  men  recognized.  Cic. 

8.  Of  two  or  more  modifiers  belonging  to  the  same  verb,  that  which  in  thought  is 
most  intimately  connected  with  the  verb  stands  next  to  it,  while  the  others  are  arranged 
as  emphasis  and  euphony  may  require: 

Mors  propter  brevitatem  vitae  nunquam  longe  abest,  death  is  never  far  distant.^  in 
consequence  of  the  shortness  of  life.  Cic. 

A 568.  The  Modifiers  of  an  Adverb  generally  precede  it,  but 
a Dative  often  follows  it  : 

Valde  vehementer  dixit,  he  spoke  very  vehemently.  Cic.  Congruenter 
natiirae  vivit,  he  lives  agreeably  to  nature.  Cic. 

569.  Special  Words. — Some  words  have  a favorite  place  in 
the  sentence,  which  they  seldom  leave.  Thus — 

I.  The  Demonstrative  generally  precedes  its  noun : 

Cllstos  hujus  urbis,  the  guardian  of  this  city.  Cic. 

1.  Ille  in  the  sense  of  well-known  (450,  4)  generally  follows  its  noun,  if  not  accom- 
panied by  an  adjective: 

Medea  ilia,  that  well-known  Medea.  Cic. 

2.  Pronouns  are  often  brought  together,  especially  quisque  with  suus  or  sul: 

Justitia  suum  cuique  tribuit,  gives  to  every  man  his  due  (his  own).  Cic.  Qui 

sese  student  praestare,  etc.,  who  are  eage/r  to  excel.,  etc.  Sail  ^ 

II.  Prepositions  generally  stand  directly  before  their  cases,  but  tenus 
and  versus  follow  their  cases : 

In  Asiam  profugit,  he  fled  into  Asia.  Cic.  Collo  tenus,  up  to  the  neck.  Ov. 

1.  The  preposition  frequently  follows  the  relative,  sometimes  other  pronouns,  and 
sometimes  even  nouns,  especially  in  poetry  : 

Res  qua  de  agitur,  the  subject  of  which  we  are  treating.  Cic.  Italiam  contra,  over 
against  ItaPy.  Verg.  m into  the  body  of  Aeacides.  Verg. 

2.  For  cum  appended  to  an  Ablative,  see  184,  6;  187,  2. 

3.  Genitives,  adverbs,  and  a few  other  words  sometimes  stand  between  the  preposi- 
tion and  its  case.  In  adjurations  per  is  usually  separated  from  its  case  by  the  Accusa- 
tive of  the  object  adjured,  or  by  some  other  word ; and  sometimes  the  verb  cro  is  omitted  : 

Post  Alexandri  magni  mortem,  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Cic.  Ad 

bene  vivendum, /or  living  well.  Cic.  Per  ego  has  lacrimas  te  oro,  I implore  you  by 
these  tears.  Verg.  Per  ego  vos  deos  (=  per  deos  ego  vds  oro),  I pray  you  in  the  name 
of  the  gods.  Curt, 

^ III.  Conjunctions  and  Relatives.,  when  they  introduce  clauses,  generally 
stand  at  the  beginning  of  such  clauses ; but  autem.,  enim.,  quidem,  quoque, 
verb,  and  generally  igitur,  follow  some  other  word : 

Si  peccavi,  ignosce,  if  1 have  erred,  pardon  me.  Cic.  li  qui  superiores 


336 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  CLAUSES. 


sunt,  tJio>se  who  are  superior.  Cic.  Ipse  autem  omnia  videbat,  hut  he  hzmself 
saw  all  things.  Cic. 

1.  A conjunction  may  follow  a relative  or  an  emphatic  word,  and  a relative  may  follow 
an  emphatic  word : 

Id  ut  audivit,  as  he  heard  this.  Nep.  Quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so. 
Cic.  Trojae  qui  primus  ah  Oris  venit,  w7io  came  first  from  the  shores  of  Troy.  Verg. 

Note. — Certain  conjunctions,  as  nec.,  sed.,  and  even  aut  and  ^'eZ,  are  more  frequently 
removed  from  the  beginning  of  the  clause  in  poetry  than  in  prose  : 

Compressus  et  omnis  impetus,  and  all  violence  was  checked.  Yerg. 

2.  Ne — quidem  takes  the  emphatic  word  or  words  between  the  two  parts : 

Ne  in  oppidis  quidem,  not  even  in  the  towns.  Cic. 

3.  Quidem  often  follows  pronouns.,  superlatives,  and  ordinals : 

Ex  me  quidem  nihil  audiet,  from  me  indeed  he  will  hear  nothing.  Cic. 

4.  Que,  ve,  ne,  introducing  a clause  or  phrase,  are  generally  appended  to  the  first 
word;  but  if  that  word  is  a preposition,  they  are  often  appended  to  the  next  word : 

and  in  the  forum.  Cic.  Inter  Mb&cpxe,  and  among  us.  Cic. 

lY.  when  it  qualifies  some  single  word,  stands  directly  before  that 
word ; but  when  it  is  particularly  emphatic,  or  qualifies  the  entire  clause, 
it  sometimes  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  clause,  and  sometimes  before 
the  finite  verb  or  before  the  auxiliary  of  a compound  tense : 

Hac  villa  carere  non  possunt,  they  are  not  able  to  do  without  this  villa.  Cic. 
Non  fuit  Juppiter  metuendus,  Jupiter  was  not  to  he  feared.  Cic.  Fas  non 
putant,  they  do  not  think  it  right.  Cic.  Pecunia  soluta  non  est,  the  money 
has  not  been  paid.  Cic. 

1.  In  general,  in  negative  clauses  the  negative  word,  whether  particle,  verb,  or  noun, 
is  made  prominent : 

Negat  quemquam  posse,  he  denies  that  any  one  is  able.  Cic.  Nihil  est  melius, 
nothing  is  better.  Cic. 

V.  Inquam.,  sometimes  md,  introducing  a quotation,  follows  one  or  more 
of  the  words  quoted.  The  subject,  if  expressed,  generally  follows  its  verb : 

Nihil,  inquit  Brutus,  quod  dicam,  nothing  which  1 shall  state.,  said  Brutus. 
Cic. 

YI.  The  Yocative  rarely  stands  at  the  beginning  of  a sentence.  It 
usually  follows  an  emphatic  word : 

Perge,  Laeli,  proceed.,  Laelius.  Cic. 

II.  Arrangement  of  Clauses. 

570.  Clauses  connected  by  coordinate  conjunctions  (554)  fol- 
low each  other  in  the  natural  order  of  the  thought,  as  in  English : 

Sol  ruit  et  montes  umbrantur,  the  sun  hastens  to  its  setting.,  and  the  moun- 
tains are  shaded.  Y erg.  Gyges  a nullo  videbatur,  ipse  autem  omnia  videbat, 
Gyges  was  seen  by  no  one,  but  he  himself  saw  all  things.  Cic. 

671.  A clause  used  as  the  Subject  of  a complex  sentence  (348) 
generally  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  and  a clause  used 
as  the  Predicate  at  the  end : 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  CLAUSES. 


337 


Quid  dies  ferat  incertum  est,  wJiat  a day  may  bring  forth  is  uncertain.  Cic. 
Exitus  fuit  orationis,  sibi  nullam  cum  his  amicitiam  esse,  the  close  of  the  ora- 
tion was^  that  he  had  no  friendship  with  these  men.  Caes. 

1.  This  arrangement  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  simple  sentence;  see  560. 

2.  Emphasis  and  euphony  often  have  the  same  effect  upon  the  arrangement  of  clauses 
as  upon  the  arrangement  of  words;  see  561. 

572.  Clauses  used  as  the  Subordinate  Elements  of  complex 
sentences  admit  three  different  arrangements : 

I.  They  are  generally  inserted  within  the  principal  clause,  like  the  sub- 
ordinate elements  of  a simple  sentence  : 

Hostes,  ubi  primum  nostros  equites  conspexerunt,  celeriter  nostros  per- 
turbaverunt, the  enemy.,  as  soon  as  they  saw  our  cavalry.,  quickly  put  our  men 
to  rout.  Caes.  Sententia,  quae  tutissima  videbatur,  vicit,  the  opinion  which 
seemed  the  safest  prevailed.  Liv. 

II.  They  are  often  placed  before  the  principal  clause : 

Cum  quiescunt,  probant,  while  they  are  quiet.,  they  approve.  Cic.  Qualis 
sit  animus,  animus  nescit,  the  soul  knows  not  what  the  soul  is.  Cic. 

Note. — ^This  arrangement  is  generally  used  when  the  subordinate  clause  either  refers 
back  to  the  preceding  sentence,  or  is  preparatory  to  the  thought  of  the  principal  clause. 
Hence  temporal.,  conditional.,  and  concessive  clauses  often  precede  the  principal  clause. 
Hence  also,  in  sentences  composed  of  correlative  clauses  with  is—qul.,  tdlis — qudlis., 
tantus — quantus.,  tum — cttm,  ita— ut.,  etc.,  the  relative  member,  i.  e.,  the  clause  with 
qu%  qudlis.,  quantus.,  cum.,  ut.,  etc.,  generally  precedes. 

III.  They  sometimes  follow  the  principal  clause : 

Enititur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  that  he  may  conquer.  Cic.  Sol  efficit  ut  omnia 
floreant,  the  sun  causes  all  things  to  bloom.  Cic. 

Note. — This  arrangement  is  generally  used  when  the  subordinate  clause  is  either 
intimately  connected  in  thought  with  the  following  sentence,  or  explanatory  of  the  prin- 
cipal clause.  Hence,  clauses  of  Purpose  and  Result  generally  follow  the  principal  clause, 
as  in  the  examples. 

673.  Latin  Periods. — A complex  sentence  in  which  two  or 
more  subordinate  clauses  are  inserted  within  the  principal  clause  is 
called  a Period  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term. 

Note  1.— The  examples  given  under  57^,  I.,  are  short  and  simple  examples  of  Latin 
Periods. 

Note  2. — Many  Latin  periods  consist  of  several  carefully  constructed  clauses  so  united 
as  to  form  one  complete  harmonious  whole.  For  examples,  see  Cicero's  Third  Oration 
against  Catiline,  XII., ‘Sed  quoniam  . . . providere’;  also  Livy,  I.,  6,  ‘Numitor,  inter 
primum  . . . ostendit.’ 

Note  3. — In  a freer  sense  the  term  Period  is  sometimes  applied  to  all  complex  sen- 
tences which  end  with  principal  clauses.  In  this  sense  the  examples  given  under  573, 
II.,  are  Pe/riods.  Many  carefully  elaborated  Latin  sentences  are  constructed  in  this  way ; 
see  Cicero’s  Oration  for  the  Poet  Archias,  I.,  ‘ Quod  si  haec  . . . debemus  ’ ; also  the  First 
Oration  against  Catiline,  XIII. , ‘Ut  saepe  homines  . . . ingravescet.’ 

23 


338 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


PART  FOURTH. 

PROSODY. 


574.  Prosody  treats  of  Quantity  and  Versification. 


OH  APTEE  I. 

QUANTITY, 

575.  The  time  occupied  in  pronouncing  a syllable  in  poetry 
is  called  its  quantity/  Syllables  are  accordingly  characterized  as 
long^  shorty  or  common.’^ 

I.  General  Rules  of  Quantity. 

576.  A syllable  is  Lokg  m Quality — 

I.  If  it  contains  a Diphthokg  or  a Long  Vowel,  or  is 
the  result  of  Contraction  : 

liaec,  foedus ; duco  ; cogo  (for  coigo),  occido  (for  occaedo),  nil  (for  nihil). 

I.  Frae  in  composition  is  usually  short  before  a vowel : praeacutus, 

II.  If  its  vowel  is  followed  by  X or  Z,  or  any  Two  Con- 
sonants except  a mute  and  a liquid  : ^ 

major,  dux,  servus,  sunt,  regunt,  regnum,  agmen. 

1.  But  one  or  both  of  the  consonants  must  belong  to  the  same  word  as  the 
vowel : ah  ^ sede^  per  ^ saxa. 

Note  1. — H has  no  tendency  in  combination  with  any  consonant  to  lengthen  a pre- 
ceding syllable.  Hence  in  such  words  as  Achaeus,,  Athenae,,  the  first  syllable  is  short. 

Note  2. — In  the  early  poets  a short  final  syllable  ending  in  s remained  short  before 
a word  beginning  with  a consonant ; sometimes  also  short  final  syllables  ending  in  other 
consonants  : imaginis  formam,,  enim  verb,,  erat  dictb,^ 


1 In  many  cases  the  quantity  of  syllables  may  be  best  learned  from  the  Dictionary, 
but  in  others  the  student  may  be  greatly  aided  by  certain  general  statements  or  rules. 

2 That  is,  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short. 

3 Here  the  syllable  is  long  by  nature  if  the  vowel  is  long,  but  long  onl/y  by  position 
ifthe  vowel  is  short.  For  the  quantity  of  vowels  before  two  consonants  or  a double  con* 
rjouant,  see  651. 

4 Here  ab  becomes  long  before  s in  sede,,  and  per  before  s in  saxa. 

^ Here  the  syllables  is,  im,  and  at  remain  short. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


339 


Note  8. — In  the  early  poets  many  syllables  long  by  position  in  the  Augustan  poets 
are  sometimes  short,  as  the  first  syllable  of  eece^  ergo^  ille^  inter ^ omnis^  unde^  uxor. 

Note  4. — A final  syllable  ending  in  a vowel  is  occasionally,  though  rarely,  lengthened 
by  consonants  at  the  beginning  of  the  following  word. 

Note  5. — In  Greek  words  a syllable  with  a vowel  before  a mute  and  a nasal  is  some- 
times short : cycnus.,  Tecmessa. 

2.  A syllable  before j is  long,  except  in  bijugus.,  is^  quadrijugus.,  is:  see 

16,  N.  2. 

577.  A syllable  is  Shoet  in  Quantity  if  its  yowel  is 
followed  in  the  same  word  by  another  Vowel,  by  a Diph= 
THONG,  or  by  the  aspirate  H : 

dies,  doceo,  viae,  nihil. 

I.  The  following  vowels,  with  the  syllables  which  contain  them,  are 
long  by  Exception  : 

1.  A — (1)  in  the  Genitive  ending  di  of  Dec.  I. : auldl ; (2)  in  proper 
names  in  dius:  Gdius  (Gajus);  (3)  before  ia,  ie,  io,  iu,  in  the  verb  did. 

2.  E-(l)  in  the  ending  el  of  Dec.  Y.  when  preceded  by  a vowel : diet ; 
and  sometimes  when  preceded  by  a consonant : JidH,  rli ; often  in  the  Da- 
tive Singular  of  the  pronoun  is : el ; (2)  in  proper  names  in  Hus : Pom- 
peius  ; (3)  in  elieu,  and  in  Rhea} 

3.  I — (1)  in  the  verb  fid,  when  not  followed  by  er : flam,  flebam,  but 
fieri  (2)  in  dlus,  a,  um  (for  dlvus,  a,  um)',  (3)  generally  in  the  Genitive 
ending  lus : alius,  illlus  ; (4)  sometimes  in  Dldna. 

4.  O — sometimes  in  bhe. 

5.  In  Greek  words  vowels  are  often  long  before  a vowel,  because  long 
in  the  original : der,  Aeneds,  Briseis,  Meneldus,  Trdes. 

Note.— This  often  occurs  in  proper  names  in  ea,  la,  eus,  lus,  don.  Ion,  dis,  dis, 
dius:  Medea,  Alexandria,  Peneus,  Darius,  Orldn. 

578.  A syllable  is  Commok  in  Quantity  if  its  vowel, 
naturally  short,  is  followed  by  a mute  and  a liquid  : 

ager,  agri ; pater,  patris  ; duplex,  triplex. 

Note  1. — A syllable  ending  in  a mute  in  the  first  part  of  a compound  before  a liquid 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  part  is  long : ah-rumpd,  ob-rogd. 

Note  2.~In  Plautus  and  Terence  a syllable  with  a short  vowel  before  a mute  and  a 
liquid  is  short. 

II.  Quantity  of  Final  Syllables. 

579.  Monosyllables  are  long  : 

a,  da,  te,  se,  de,  si,  qui,  do,  pro,  tu,  dos,  pes,  sis,  bos,  sus,  par,  sol. 

1 The  name  of  the  daughter  of  Numitor,  and  of  a priestess  in  Vergil.  In  Rhea,  anoth- 
er name  for  Cybele,  the  e is  short. 

2 Sometimes  fieri  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 


340 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY, 


I.  The  following  are  short  by  Exception  : 

1.  Enclitics:  que^  ve^  ne^  ce,  te^  pse^  pte. 

2.  Monosyllables  in  b,  d,  1,  m,  t : ab^  ad^  fel^  sum^  et ; except  sat,  soZ. 

3.  An^  bis^  ds,  cor,  cs,  /ac,  /c?’,  m,  is,  nec,  os  (ossis),  per,  ter,  qua  (indel 
inite),  quis,  vir,  vas  (vadis),  and  sometimes  Mc  and  hOc  in  the  Nominativo 
and  Accusative. 

580.  In  words  of  more  than  one  syllable — 

I.  The  final  Yowels  o,  and  u are  long;  e,  and  y, 
short : ^ 

marl,  audi,  servo,  omnino,  fructu,  cornu ; via,  maria,  mare,  misy. 

II.  Final  syllables  in  c are  long ; in  1;,  m^,  n,  r,  short* : 

alec  illQc ; illud,  consul,  amem,  carmen,  amor,  caput. 

Noiii  l.*-Ddnec  and  lien  are  exceptions. 

Note  2. — Final  syllables  in  n and  r are  long  in  many  Greek  words  which  end  long  in 
the  original;  as  Titan,  Anchisen,  Hymen,  Delphin,  der,  aether,  crater. 

III.  The  final  syllables  as^  es^  and  os  are  long ; is,  us, 
ys,  short : 

amas,  mensas,  mones,  nubes,  servos ; avis,  urbis,  bonus,  chlamys. 

Note  1. — The  learner  will  remember  that  short  final  syllables  like  is,  us,  etc.,  may  be 
lengthened  by  being  placed  before  a word  beginning  with  a consonant;  see  576,  II. 

Note  2. — Plautus  retains  the  original  quantity  of  many  final  syllables  usually  short  in 
the  Augustan  age.  Thus  the  endings  d,  e,  dl,  dr,  dr.  Is,  us,  dt,  et.  It,  often  stand  in  place 
of  the  later  endings  a,  e,  al,  ar,  or,  is,  us,  at,  et,  it  (21).  Some  of  these  early  forms 
are  retained  by  Terence,  and  some  of  them  occasionally  occur  in  the  Augustan  poets. 

Note  3. — Plautus  and  Terence,  in  consequence  of  the  colloquial  character  of  comedy, 
often  shorten  unaccented  final  syllables  after  an  accented  short  syllable : ama,  dbn 
dedi,  domi,  domo,  viro,  pedes. 

Note  4. — In  Plautus  and  Terence  the  doubling  of  a letter  does  not  usually  affect  the 
quantity  of  the  syllable  : ll  in  ille,  mm  in  immd,  pp  in  opportune. 

581.  Numerous  exceptions  to  the  general  rule  for  the 
quantity  of  final  syllables  occur  even  in  classical  Latin: 

I.  I final,  usually  long,  is  sometimes  short  or  common — 

1.  Short  in  nisi,  quasi,  cui  (when  a dissyllable),  and  in  the  Greek  ending 
si  of  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural. 

2.  Common  in  mihi,  tibi,  sibf,  ibf,  ubf,  and  in  the  Dative  and  Vocative 
Singular  of  some  Greek  words. 

II.  O final,  usually  long,  is  short — 

1.  In  duo,  ego,  octo,  eho,  in  the  adverbs  oito,  ilico,  modo,  and  its  compounds, 
dummodo,  quomodo,  etc.,  in  cedo,  and  in  the  old  form  endo. 


1 i7is  short  in  indu  and  nlnu.  Contracted  syllables  are  long,  according  to  576, 1. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


341 


2.  Sometimes  (1)  in  nouns  of  Dec.  III.  and  (2)  in  verbs,  though  very 
rarely  in  the  best  poets. 

III.  A finals  usually  short,  is  long — 

1.  In  the  Ablative : mensd^  hond^  illd. 

2.  In  the  Vocative  of  Greek  nouns  in  as : Aened^  Palld.^ 

3.  In  Verbs  and  Particles:  amd^  curd;  circd^  juxtd^  anted ^fr^strd.  Ex- 
cept ita^  quia^  eja^  heja^  and  puta  used  adverbially. 

IV.  E finals  usually  short,  is  long — 

1.  In  Dec.  I.  and  V.,^  and  in  Greek  plurals  of  Dec.  III. : epitorrie  ; re^  die; 
tempe^  mele. 

2-  Generally  in  the  Dative  ending  g of  Dec.  III. : ae?4  = aerl. 

a In  the  Singular  Imperative  Active  of  Conj.  II.  : mone^  doc~e.  But  e is 
somatimes  short  in  cavl^  vidl^  etc.^ 

4.  Infere^  ferme^  bhe^  and  in  adverbs  from  adjectives  of  Dec.  II.  : dode^ 
rede.  Except  hene^  male.,  Inferne.,  interne.,  superne. 

V As  final.,  usually  long,  is  short — 

1.  In  anas  and  in  a few  Greek  nouns  in  as : Areas.,  lampas. 

2.  In  Greek  Accusatives  of  Dec.  III. : Arcadas.,  heroas. 

VI.  Es  final.,  usually  long,  is  short — 

1.  In  Nominatives  Singular  of  Dec.  III.  with  short  increment  (583)  in 
the  Genitive ; miles  (itis),  obses  (idis),  interpres  (etis).  Except  abies.,  arid., 
paries.,  Ceres.,  and  compounds  of pes.,  as  bipes.,  tripes.,  etc. 

2.  In  penes  and  the  compounds  of  es.,  as  ades.,  potes. 

3.  In  Greek  words — (1)  in  the  plural  of  those  which  increase  in  the  Geni- 
tive : Arcades.,  Troades  ; (2)  in  a few  neuters  in  es:  Hippomenes;  (3)  in  a 
few  Vocatives  Singular:  Demosthenes. 

VII.  Os  final.,  usually  long,  is  short — 

1.  In  compos.,  impos.,  exos. 

2.  In  Greek  words  with  the  ending  short  in  the  Greek : Delos.,  melos. 

VIII.  Is  final.,  usually  short,  is  long — 

1.  In  plural  cases : mensls.,  servls.,  vobls.  Hence  forls,  grdtls.,  ingrdtls. 

2.  In  Nominatives  of  Dec.  III.  increasing  long  in  the  Genitive : Quiris 
(itis),  Salamis  (inis). 

3.  In  the  Singular  Present  Indie.  Act.  of  Conj.  IV. : audls. 

Note. — Marls,  quwls,  uterms,  follow  the  quantity  of  rls. 

4.  In  the  Singular  Present  Subj.  Act. : possls^  veils,  nblns.,  malls. 


1 Sometimes  in  the  Vocative  of  Greek  nouns  in  as  and  es. 

2 Hence,  in  the  compounds,  hodie,  -pridie,  postridie,  quare, 

3 In  the  comic  poets  many  dissyllabic  Imperatives  with  a short  penult  shorten  the 
ultimate : as  habe,  jube,  mane,  move,  tace,  tene.  etc. 


S42 


BULBS  OF  QUANTITY. 


5.  Sometimes  in  the  Singular  of  the  Future  Perfect  and  of  the  Perfect 
Subjunctive : amaveris.^  docueris. 

IX.  Us  final usually  short,  is  long — 

1.  In  Nominatives  of  Dec.  III.  increasing  long  in  the  Genitive : 'virtm 
(utis),  tellus  (uris). 

Note. — palus  (u  short)  occurs  in  Horace,  Ars  Poetica,  65. 

2.  In  Dec.  IV.,  in  the  Genitive  Singular,  and  in  the  Nominative,  Accusa- 
tive, and  Vocative  Plural : f ructus. 

8.  In  Greek  words  ending  long  in  the  original : Panthus.,  Sapphus.,  tripus^ 

Note.— But  we  have  Oedipus  and  polypus. 

III.  Quantity  in  Increments. 

582.  A word  is  said  to  increase  in  declension,  when  it  has  in 
any  case  more  syllables  than  in  the  Nominative  Singular,  and  to 
have  as  many  increments  of  declension  as  it  has  additional  syllables : 
sermo.,  sermonis.,  sermonibus.^ 

683.  A verb  is  said  to  increase  in  conjugation,  when  it  has  in 
any  part  more  syllables  than  in  the  second  person  singular  of  the 
Present  Indicative  Active,  and  to  have  as  many  increments  of  conju- 
gation as  it  has  additional  syllables  : amds,  amdtis,  amabatis.  ^ 

584.  If  there  is  but  one  increment,  it  is  uniformly  the  penult ; 
if  there  are  more  than  one,  they  are  the  penult  with  the  requisite 
number  of  syllables  before  it.  The  increment  nearest  the  begin- 
ning of  the  word  is  called  the  first  increment,  and  those  following 
this  are  called  successively  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  increments.  ® 

Increments  of  Declension. 

685.  In  the  Increments  of  Declension^  a and  o are  long  ; 
e,  i,  u,  and  y,  short : * 

aetas,  aetatis,  aetatibus ; serm6,  sermonis ; puer,  pueri,  puerorum  ; fulgur, 
fulguris;  chlamys,  chlamydis;  bonus,  bonarum,  bonorum;  ille,  illarum,  il- 
lorum ; miser,  miseri ; supplex,  supplicis ; satur,  saturi. 

I.  A,  usually  long  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  short  in  the  first 
Increment — ^ 

1 Sermonis.,  having  one  syllable  more  than  se/rmb.,  has  one  increment,  while  sermoni- 
J?us  has  two  increments. 

2 Amdtis  has  one  increment,  amabatis  two. 

12  12  3 

3 In  ser-mdn-i-bus.,  the  first  increment  is  mon.,  the  second  i ; and  in  mon-u-e-rd-mus., 
the  first  is  'W,  the  second  e,  the  third  rd. 

^ Y occurs  only  in  Greek  words,  and  is  long  in  the  increments  of  nouns  in  yn  and  ol 
a few  others. 

® Observe  that  the  exceptions  belong  to  the  first  increment. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


343 


1.  Of  masculines  in  aZ  and  ar* Hannibal.,  Hannibalis ; Caesar.,  Caesaris. 

2.  Of  nouns  in  s preceded  by  a consonant:  dajps.,  dapis ; Arabs.,  Arabis ; 
AiemSj  Tiiemis. 

3.  Of  Greek  nouns  in  a and  as  : po'ema.,  poematis  ; Pallas.,  Palladis. 

4.  Of  (1)  baccar.,  Mpar.,  jubar.,  Idr.,  nectar.,  par.,  and  its  compounds ; (2) 
anas.,  mas.,  ras  (vadis) ; (3)  sal.,  fax.,  and  a few  rare  Greek  words  in  ax. 

II,  O,  usually  long  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  short  in  the  first 
increment — ^ 

1.  Of  Neuters  in  Declension  III.  : aequor.,  aequoris  q tempus.,  temporis. 
Except  bs  (oris),  ador  (adOris),  and  comparatives. 

2.  Of  words  in  s preceded  hy  a consonant : inops.,  inopis.  Except  Cyclops 
and  hydrops. 

3.  Of  arbor.,  bos.,  lepus;  compos,  impos,  memor,  immemor  ; Allobrox,  Cap- 
padox, praecox. 

4.  Of  most  Patrials  : MacedO,  Macedonis. 

6.  Of  many  Greek  nouns — (1)  those  in  or : rhetor.  Hector ; (2)  many  in  6 
and  w increasing  short  in  Greek;  aedbn,  aedonis;  (3)  in  Greek  compounds 
mpus  or  pus  : tripus  (odis),  Oedipus. 

III.  B,  usually  short  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  long  in  the 
first  increment — 

1.  Of  Declension  V. : diel,  dierum,  diebus,  rebus.  But  in  the  Genitive  and 
Dative  Singular  sometimes  short  after  a consonant : fidll,  spll. 

2.  Of  nouns  in  en,  mostly  Greek:  Hen,  Uenis ; Siren,  Sirenis.  So  Anib, 
Anienis. 

3.  Of  Celtiber,  Iber,  ver,  heres,  locuples,  merces,  quies,  inquies,  requies,  plebs, 
lex,  rex,  dlec,  alex,  vervex. 

4.  Of  a few  Greek  words  in  es  and  er : lebes,  lebetis  ; crater,  crateris.  Ex- 
cept d£r  and  aether. 

lY.  I,  usually  short  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  long  in  the 
first  increment — 

1.  Of  most  words  in  ix  : radix,  radicis  ; felix,  felicis.’^ 

2.  Of  dis,  gins,  lis,  vis,  Quiris,  Samnis. 

3.  Of  delphin,  and  a few  rare  Greek  words. 

Note.— For  quantity  of  I in  the  ending  \us,  see  577,  3. 

Y.  U,  usually  short  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  long  in  the 
first  increment — 

1.  Of  nouns  in  us  with  the  Genitive  in  uris,  utis,  udis  : jus,  juris  ; salus, 
salutis  ; palus,  paludis.^ 

2.  Of fur,  frux,  lux,  plus,  Pollux. 

1 See  p.  842,  foot-note  5. 

But  short  in  appendix,  caUx,  Cilix,  filix,  fornix,  nix,  pix,  salix,  strix,  and  a 
few  others,  chiefly  proper  names. 

3 But  short  in  intercus,  Ligus,  pecus. 


344 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY, 

Increments  of  Conjugation, 

586.  In  the  Increments  of  Conjugation  (583),  a,  e,  and 
o are  long  ; i and  u short : 

amamus,  amemus,  amatote  ; regimus,  sumus. 

Note  1. — In  ascertaining  the  increments  of  the  irregular  verbs, /6rd,  and  their 
compounds,  the  full  form  of  the  second  person,  feris^  volis^  etc.,  must  be  used.  Thus: 
in  ferebam  and  nolebam,,  the  increments  are  re  and  le. 

Note  2. — In  ascertaining  the  increments  of  reduplicated  forms  (255,  I.),  the  re- 
duplication is  not  counted.  Thus  dedimus  has  but  one  increment,  di. 

I.  A,  usually  long  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  short  in  the 
first  increment  of  do : dare,,  daham,,  circumdabam. 

II.  E,  usually  long  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  short  before  r — 

1.  In  the  tenses  in  ram,,  rim,,  rb : amaveram,,  amaverim,,  amavero  ; rexerat,, 
rexerit. 

2.  In  the  first  increment  of  the  Present  and  Imperfect  of  Conjugation  III. : 
regere,,  regeris,,  regerem,,  regerer. 

3.  In  the  Future  ending  beris.,  here  : amaberis  or  -ere,,  moneberis. 

4.  Karely  in  the  Perfect  ending  erunt:  steterunt  for  steterunt;  see  236, 
note ; also  Systole.,  608,  VI. 

III.  I,  usually  SHORT  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  long,  except 
before  a vowel — 

1.  In  the  first  increment  of  Conjugation  IV.,  except  imus  of  the  Perfect ; 
audlre,,  audlvi,,  auditum  ; sentire,,  sentimus  ; sensimus  (Perfect). 

2.  In  Conjugation  III.,  in  the  first  increment  of  Perfects  and  Supines  in 
ivi  and  itum  (278),  and  of  the  parts  derived  from  them  (except  imus  of 
the  Perfect:  trivimus')  : cu/pivi,,  cupiverat,,  cupitus  ; petivi,,  petitus ; capmivi^ 
capessiturus.  Gavisus  from  gaudeo  follows  the  same  analogy. 

3.  In  the  endings  imus  and  itis  of  the  Present  Subjunctive : simus,,  sitis  ; 
velimus,,  velitis  (240,  3). 

4.  In  noUte,,  nolito,,  nolitote,,  and  in  the  different  persons  of  ibam,,  ibb,,  from 
eb  (295). 

5.  Sometimes  in  the  endings  rimus  and  ritis  of  the  Future  Perfect  and 
Perfect  Subjmictive : amaverimus,,  amaveritis. 

IV.  U,  usually  short  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  long  in  the 
Supine  and  the  parts  formed  from  it : volutum,  voluturus,  amaturus. 

ly.  Quantity  op  Derivative  Endings. 

587.  The  most  important  derivative  endings  may  be  classified 
according  to  quantity  as  follows : 

I.  Derivative  endings  with  a Long  Penult  : 

1.  abrum,  acrum,  atrum : 

flabrum,  simulacrum,  aratrum. 


345 


CARL  HINRICHS 

RULES  OF  QUANTITY, 

2.  ed6,  id6,  ud6 ; ago,  ig6,  ug6 : 
dulcedo,  cupido,  solitudo  ; vorago,  origo,  aerugo. 

3.  ais,  eis,  ois,  5tis,  ine,  one — in  patronymics : ^ 

Ptolemais,  Chryseis,  Minois,  Icariotis,  Nerine,  Acrisione. 

4.  eia,  ile ; alis,  elis,  ulis  : 
querela,  ovile ; mortalis,  fidelis,  curulis. 

5.  anus,  enus,  onus,  unus ; ana,  ena,  ona,  una : 
urbanus,  egenus,  patronus,  tribunus ; membrana,  habena,  annona,  la- 

cfina. 

6.  aris,  arus ; orus,  osus  ; avus,  ivus  : 

salutaris,  avarus  ; canorus,  animosus  ; octavus,  aestivus. 

7.  atus,  etus,  itus,  otus,  utus ; atim,  itim,  utim ; etum,  eta : ^ 
alatus,  facetus,  turritus,  aegrotus,  cornutus ; singulatim,  viiitim,  tribu- 

tim ; quercetum,  moneta. 

8.  eni,  ini,  oni — in  disUihuiives : 
septeni,  quini,  octoni. 

II.  Derivative  endings  with  a Short  Penult — 

1.  ades,  iades,  ides — in  patronymics : ^ 

Aeneades,  Laertiades,  Tantalides. 

2.  iacus,  icus,  idus : ^ 

Corinthiacus,  modicus,  cupidus. 

3.  olus,  ola,  olum ; ulus,  ula,  ulum ; culus,  cula,  culum — in  diminu- 
tives : 

filiolus,  filiola,  atriolum ; hortulus,  virgula,  oppidulum ; flosculus,  par- 
ticula, munusculum. 

4.  etas,  itas — in  nouns  ; iter,  itus — in  adverhs : 
pietas,  veritas ; fortiter,  divinitus. 

6.  atilis,  ilis,  bilis — in  verbals;  inus — in  adjectives  denoting  material 
or  time : ^ 

versatilis,  docilis,  amabilis ; adamantinus,  cedrinus,  crastinus,  diutinus. 

Note  1. — Ilis  in  adjectives  from  nouns  usually  has  the  penult  long : clmlis^  hostilis^ 
■puerilis^  virilis. 

Note  2.— Inus  denoting  characteristic  (330)  usually  has  the  penult  long : caninus., 
equinus^  marinus. 

^ Except  Danais.,  Phocais,  Thebais,  NerUs. 

2 Except  (1)  anhelitus,  fortuitus,  grdt^iitus,  halitus,  hospitus,  spiritus ; (2)  adfa- 
tim,  statim,  and  adverbs  in  itus,  as  divinitus;  and  (3)  participles  provided  for  by  586. 

3 Except  (1)  those  in  ides  from  nouns  in  eus  and  es : as,  Pelldes  (Peleus),  Neo- 
clides (Neocles) ; and  (2)  Amphiardides,  Amyclides,  BUides,  Coronides,  Lycurgides. 

< Except  amicus,  anticus,  apricus,  mendicus,  posticus,  pudicus. 

® Except  mdtuUnus,  repentinus,  vespertinus. 


846 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY 


III.  Derivative  endings  with  a Long  Antepenult  : 

1.  aceus,  uceus,  aneus,  Mus,  arium,  orius  : 

rosaceus,  pannuceus,  subitaneus,  cibarius,  columbarium,  censorius. 

2.  abundus,  acundus ; abilis,  atilis,  aticus : 
mirabundus.  Iracundus  ; amabilis,  versatilis,  aquaticus. 

3.  aginta,  iginti,  esimus — in  numerals  : 
nonaginta,  viginti,  centesimus. 

4.  imonia,  imdnium ; torius,  s5rius ; t5ria,  torium : 
querimonia,  alimonium ; amatorius,  censorius  ; victoria,  auditorium. 

IV.  Derivative  endings  with  a Short  Antepenult  : 

1.  ibilis,  itudo,  olentus,  ulentus: 
credibilis,  solitudo,  vinolentus,  opulentus. 

2.  urio — in  desideratives  : 
esurio,  empturio,  parturio. 

V.  Quantity  of  Stem- Syllables. 

588.  All  simple  verbs  in  id  of  the  Third  Conjugation  (217) 
have  the  stem- syllable  ^ short : 

capio,  cupio,  facio,  fodio,  fugio. 

589.  Most  verbs  which  form  the  Perfect  in  ul  have  the  stem- 
syllable  short: 

domo,  se(%  ^habeo,  moneo,  alo,  colo. 

Note. — Pdm>^  d^ebed^  Jldred^  pdred^  and  several  inceptive  verbs,  are  exceptions. 

590.  Dissyllabic  Perfects  and  Supines  have  the  first  syllable 
long,  unless  short  by  position : 

juvo,  juvi,  julum;  foveo,  fovi,  fotum. 

1.  Eight  Perfects  and  ten  Supines  have  the  first  syllable  short : 
hihl^dedl^  ftd\^  liquid  scidl^  stetl^  stitl^  tuU ; citum^  datum^  iium^ 
quitum^  ratum^  rutum^  satum^  situm^  statum.'^ 

591.  Trisyllabic  Reduplicated  Perfects  have  the  first  two  syl- 
lables short : 

cado,  cecidl;  cano,  cecini;  disco,  didici. 

Note  1. — Caedd  has  cecidl  in  distinction  from  cecidl  from  cadb. 

Note  2. — The  second  syllable  may  be  made  long  by  position  : cucurri^  momordi. 

692,  In  general,  inflected  forms  retain  the  quantity  of  stem-syl 
lables  unchanged : ^ 

1 That  is,  the  syllable  preceding  the  characteristic. 

2 Liqul  from  Uqueb  ; linquo  has  llqul.  Statum  from  sistb  ; stb  has  stdtum, 

8 But  see  Dissyllabic  Perfects  and  Supines^  590. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


347 


avis,  avem;  ntibes,  nubium;  levis,  levior,  levissimus;  moneo,  monebam, 
monui. 


Note  1.— Position  may,  however,  affect  the  quantity:  ager^  agri;  possum,  potvu; 
solve,  solutum;  volvo,  volutum.'^ 

Note  2. — Gigno  gives  genui,  genitum,  and  pond,  posui,  positmn. 


593.  Derivatives  generally  retain  the  quantity  of  the  stem-syl- 
lables of  their  primitives  : 

bonus,  bonitas ; timeo,  timor ; animus,  animosus ; civis,  civicus  ; cura,  ctira 


1.  Words  formed  from  the  same  root  sometimes  show  a variation  in  the 
quantity  of  stem-syllables : 


dico, 

dux,  ducis, 

fides, ^ 

homo, 

lateo, 

lego, 

macer, 

moveo, 

nota, 

odium. 


dico. 

persono. 

persona, 

duco, 

rego. 

rex,  regis,  regula. 

fido. 

secus. 

setius, 

humanus, 

sedeo. 

sedes,  sedulus. 

laterna. 

sero. 

semen, 

lex,  legis. 

sopor. 

sopio, 

macero. 

suspicor. 

suspicio, 

mobilis, 

tego. 

tegula, 

notum. 

vadum. 

vado. 

odi. 

voco. 

vox,  vocis. 

Note  1.— This  change  of  quantity  in  some  instances  is  the  result  of  contraction,  as 
movihilis,  moibilis,  mobilis,  and  in  others  it  serves  to  distinguish  words  of  the  same 
orthography,  as  the  verbs  legis,  leges,  regis,  reges,  sedes,  from  the  nouns  legis,  leget^ 
regis,  reges,  sedes,  or  the  verbs  duds,  dilces,fldes,  from  the  nouns  duds,  duces,  jid^. 

Note  2.— A few  derivatives  shorten  the  long  vowel  of  the  primitive  : deer,  acerbus ; 
"^'Uced,  lucerna;  moles,  molestus. 


594.  Compounds  generally  retain  the  quantity  of  thei®  elements  : 

ante-fero,  de-fero,  de-duco,  in-aequalis,  pro-duco. 

1.  The  change  of  a vowel  or  diphthong  does  not  affect  the  quantity : 

de-ligo  {lego),  oc-cido  {cado),  oc-cido  {caedo). 

2.  The  Inseparable  Prepositions  di,  se,  and  ve  are  long,  re  short ; ne  some- 
times long  and  sometimes  short : 

diduco,  seduco,  vecors,  reduco ; nedum,  nefas : 

Note  1. — Di  is  short  in  dirimo  and  disertus. 

Note  2. — JSfe  is  long  in  nedum,  nemo,  nequam,  nequaquam,  nequiquam,  nequitia, 
and  nme.  In  other  words  it  is  short. 

Note  3. — lie  is  sometimes  lengthened  in  a few  words : rtligib,  reliquiae,  rlpe/rit 
Ipulit,  rltulit,  etc. 

3.  In  a few  words  the  quantity  of  the  second  element  is  changed.  Thus  -*  - 

Juro  gives  -jero  ; notus,  -nitus  ; nubo,  -nuba : de-jero,  cog-nitus,  pro-nuba. 

4.  Prae  in  composition  is  usually  short  before  a vowel : praeacutus,  prae- 
ustus. 


5.  Pro  is  short  in  the  following  words : 


1 Here  the  first  syllable  is  short  in  ager,  but  common  in  agrl  (578);  long  in  pos 
sum,  solvd,  volvd  (576,  II.),  but  short  in  potul,  solutum,  and  volutum. 


348 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


procella^  procul^  prof  anus  ^ prof dri^  profecto,^  profestus^  proficiscor^  profiteor^ 
profugio^  profugus^  profundus^  pronepos^  proneptis^  protervus^  and  in  most 
Greek  words,  as  propheta ; generally  also  in  prOfundo^  prOpdgo^  prhpdgb^ 
pr^lno^  rarely  inprdcuro^  prbpello. 

6.  At  the  end  of  a verbal  stem  compounded  with  facid  or  flo^  e is  gener- 
ally short : 

calefacio,  calefio,  labefacio,  patefacio. 

7.  / is  usually  long  in  the  first  part  of  the  compounds  of  dies : 

meridies,  pridie,  postridie,  cotidie,  triduum. 

8.  0 is  long  in  contrb-^  intrb-^  retro- ^ and  quando-  in  composition  : 

controversia^  introduco^  retroverto^  quandoque  ; but  quandoquidem. 

9.  The  quantity  of  the  final  i in  ubi^  and  uti  is  often  changed  in  com- 
position : 

ibidem.^  iblque  / ublque^  ublnam^  ubivls^  libicunque.^  necubi.^  slcubi  ; utinam.^ 
utique.,  slcuti, 

10.  Hodie.,  quasi.,  quoque,  and  siquidem  have  the  first  syllable  short. 

595.  The  Quantity  of  Stem- Syllables  in  cases  not  provided  for 
by  any  rules  now  given  will  be  best  learned  from  the  Dictionary. 
By  far  the  larger  number  of  such  syllables  will  be  found  to  be 
short.  For  convenience  of  reference,  a list  of  the  most  important 
primitives  with  long  stem-syllables  is  added  : ^ 


acer 

celo 

deleo 

fortuna 

lenis 

adulor 

cera 

dicO  (ere) 

fretus 

letum 

aer 

cicada 

dirus 

fumus 

liber  (era,  erum) 

ala 

civis 

dives 

funis 

libo 

alea 

clamo 

divus 

funus 

lilium 

altare 

clarus 

dOnec 

furor  (ari) 

limen 

amarus 

clavus 

donum 

gleba 

limes 

ancile 

clemens 

ducO 

gloria 

linum 

anhelus 

clivus 

dudum 

gramen 

liveo 

antiquus 

codex 

durus 

gratus 

lorum 

ara. 

cOmis 

extremus 

hamus 

ludo 

area 

cOmO 

fagus 

heres 

lugeo 

areo 

cOnor 

fama 

herOs 

lumen 

ater 

cOnus 

fanum 

hora 

luna 

avena 

copia 

fari 

icO 

malo 

bilis 

coram 

fecundus 

imago 

mane 

bruma 

corOna 

felix 

inanis 

manes 

bubo 

crater 

femina 

ira 

manO 

cacumen 

crates 

fetus 

janua 

mater 

caligo 

creber 

fido 

jucundus 

maturus 

caminus 

credo 

figo 

luro 

meta 

canus 

crinis 

filius 

labor  (i) 

metior 

caper 

crudus 

filum 

lamentum 

miles 

carina 

cura 

finis 

lana 

miror 

carus 

curia 

flavus 

latus  (a,  um) 

mitis 

cedo  (ere) 

debeo 

flumen 

legO  (are) 

moles 

1 Including  a few  derivatives  and  compounds. 


VERSIFICATION 


849 


mugeo 

otium 

puber 

sedo 

totus 

munio 

munus 

pagus 

palor 

punio 

purus 

serenus 

serus 

trudo 

uber 

murus 

panis 

qualis 

sido 

udus 

musa 

pareo 

radix 

sincerus 

umeo 

muto 

penates 

rado 

solor 

unus 

mutus 

peritus 

ramus 

solus 

uro 

naris 

pilum 

rarus 

sopio 

utor 

navis 

pinus 

remus 

spica 

uva 

nidus 

planus 

rideo 

spina 

uvidus 

nitor  (i) 

plenus 

ripa 

spiro 

vado 

nodus 

pluma 

ritus 

spuma 

vanus 

nonus 

poeta 

rivus 

squaleo 

vates 

nubes 

pomum 

robur 

stipo 

velox 

nubo 

pone 

rodo 

strages 

velum 

nudus 

pono 

ruga 

strenuus 

vena 

nuto 

pot5 

rumor 

strideo 

venenu 

olim 

pratum 

rupes 

sudo 

venor 

omen 

pravus 

sanus 

tabes 

verus 

opacus 

primus 

, scalae 

talis 

vilis 

opimus 

privus 

scribo 

telum 

vinum 

ora 

promo 

scutum 

temO 

vivo 

oro 

prora 

sedes 

tibia 

CHAPTER  II. 
VERSIFICATION. 


SECTION  I. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  SUBJECT. 

596.  Latin  Versification  is  based  upon  Quantity.  Syllables 
are  combined  into  certain  metrical  groups  called  Feet,  and  feet, 
singly  or  in  pairs,  are  combined  into  Verses.^ 

1.  In  quantity  or  time  the  unit  of  measure  is  the  short  syllable,  indicated 
either  by  a curve  or  by  an  eighth  note  in  music,  . A long  syllable 

1 Modern  versification  is  based  upon  Accent.  An  English  verse  is  a regular  com- 
bination of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables,  but  a Latin  verse  is  a similar  combina- 
tion of  long  and  short  syllables.  The  rhythmic  accent  or  ictus  (599)  in  Latin  depends 
entirely  upon  quantity.  Compare  the  following  lines  : 


Teli'  me 

1 not',  in 

mourn'-ful 

num'-bers, 

Life'  is 

1 but'  an 

emp'-ty  | 

dream'. 

Tru'-di- 

1 tur'  di-  i 

1 es'  di-  1 

e'. 

At'  fi- 

1 des'  et 

1 in'-ge- 

ni'. 

Observe  that  in  the  English  lines  the  accent  or  ictus  falls  upon  the  same  syllables  as  in 
prose,  while  in  the  Latin  it  falls  uniformly  upon  long  syllables.  On  Latin  Versification^ 
see  Eamsay’s  ‘ Latin  Prosody  ’ ; Schmidt’s  ‘ Rhy thmik  und  Metrik,’  translated  by  Pro- 
lessor  White;  Christ’s  ‘Metrik.’ 


350 


METRICAL  FEET. 


has  in  general  twice  the  value  of  a short  syllable,'  and  is  indicated  eithei 
by  the  sign  — , or  by  a quarter  note  in  music,  J . This  unit  of  measure  is 
also  called  a time  or  mora. 

Note  1. — A long  syllable  is  sometimes  prolonged  so  as  to  have  the  value 
(1)  of  three  short  syllables,  indicated  by  the  sign  or  ; or  (2)  of  four 
short  syllables,  indicated  by  lj,  or  J. 

Note  2. — A long  syllable  is  sometimes  shortened  so  as  to  have  the  value 
of  a short  syllable,  indicated  by  the  sign  > , or  . A syllable  thus  used 
is  said  to  have  irrational  time. 


597.  The  feet  of  most  frequent  occurrence  in  the  best  Latin 


poets  are — 
Dactyl, 

I.  Feet  of  Four  Times  or  Four  Morae. 
one  long  and  two  short.,  — w ^ J 

carmina. 

Spondee, 

two  long  syllables^ 

— 

J J 

leges. 

Trochee,2 

II.  Feet  of  Three  Times  or  Three  Morae. 
one  long  and  one  short.,  — w J 

legis. 

Iambus, 

one  short  and  one  long.,  ^ — 

parens. 

Tribrach, 

three  short  syllables.. 

dominus. 

Note  1.— To  these  may  be  added  the  following : 

Pyrrhic,  w 

v-'  pater. 

Ditrochee, 

civitatis. 

Anapaest, 

— bonitas. 

Dispondee, 

— 

praeceptores. 

Bacchius, 

doldres. 

Greater  Ionic, 



sententia. 

Cretic,  — 

v-'  — milites. 

Lesser  Ionic, 

^ 

adolescens. 

Diiambus,  ^ 

— — amoenitas. 

Choriambus, 

— w 

impatiens.  3 

Note  2.— A Dipody  is  a group  of  two  feet;  a Tripody.,  of  three;  a Tetrapody^  of 
four,  etc.  A Trihemimeris  is  a group  of  three  half  feet,  i.  e.,  a foot  and  a half;  a Pen- 
themimeris^ of  two  and  a half;  a Hephthemime^is^  of  three  and  a half,  etc. 


598.  Metrical  Equivalents. — A long  syllable  may  be  re- 
solved into  two  short  syllables,  as  equivalent  to  it  in  quantity,  or 
tv/o  short  syllables  may  be  contracted  into  a long  syllable.  The 
forms  thus  produced  are  metrical  equivalents  of  the  original  feet. 

Note. — Thus  the  Dactyl  becomes  a Spondee  by  contracting  the  two  short  syllables 
into  one  long  syllable;  the  Spondee  becomes  a Dactyl  by  resolving  the  second  syllable, 
or  an  Anapaest  by  resolving  the  first.  Accordingly,  the  Dactyl,  the  Spondee,  and  the 
Anapaest  are  metrical  equivalents.  In  like  manner  the  Iambus,  the  Trochee,  and  the 
Tribrach  are  metrical  equivalents. 

1 See  foot-note  1,  p.  849. 

2 Sometimes  called  Choree. 

3 The  feet  here  mentioned  as  having  four  syllables  are  only  compounds  of  dissyllabic 
feet.  Thus  the  Diiamhus  is  a double  Iambus ; the  Ditrochee.^  a double  Trochee ; the 
Pispondee.,  a double  Spondee;  the  Great&r  Ionic.,  a Spondee  and  a Pyrrhic;  the  Lesser 
Jcmic.,  a Pyrrhic  and  a Spondee ; the  Choriambus.,  a Trochee  (Choree)  and  an  Iambus. 


ICTUS.— ARSIS  AND  THESIS.— VERSES. 


351 


1.  In  certain  kinds  of  verse  admitting  irrational  time  (596,  1,  note  2), 
Spondees,  Dactyls,  and  Anapaests  are  shortened  to  the  time  of  a Trochee  or 
of  an  Iambus,  and  thus  become  metrical  equivalents  of  eaeh  of  these  feet. 

1)  A Spondee  used  for  a Trochee  is  called  an  Irrational  Trochee,  and  is 
marked  — > . 

2)  A Spondee  used  for  an  Iambus  is  called  an  Irrational  Iambus,  and  is 
marked  > — 

3)  A Dactyl  used  for  a Trochee  is  called  a Cyclic  Dactyl,  and  is  marked 

4)  An  Anapaest  used  for  an  Iambus  is  called  a Cyclic  Anapaest,  and  is 
marked  w 

599.  Ictus  or  Rhythmic  Accent. — As  in  the  pronunciation  of 
a word  one  or  more  syllables  receive  a special  stress  of  voice  called 
accent,  so  in  the  pronunciation  of  a metrical  foot  one  or  more  syl- 
lables receive  a special  stress  of  voice  called  Rhythmic  Accent  or 
Ictus. 

1.  Feet  consisting  of  both  long  and  short  syllables  have  the  ictus  uniform- 
ly on  the  long  syllables,  unless  used  as  equivalents  for  other  feet 

Note.— Thus  the  Dactyl  and  the  Trochee  have  the  ictus  on  the  first  syllable;  the 
Anapaest  and  the  Iambus  on  the  last. 

2.  Equivalents  take  the  ictus  of  the  feet  for  which  they  are  used. 

Note  1. — Thus  the  Spondee,  when  used  for  the  Dactyl,  takes  the  ictus  of  the  Dactyl 
•“i.  e.,  on  the  first  syllable ; but  when  used  for  the  Anapaest,  it  takes  the  ictus  of  the 
Anapaest— i.  e.,  on  the  last  syllable. 

Note  2. — Feet  consisting  entirely  of  long  or  entirely  of  short  syllables  are  generally 
iised  as  equivalents,  and  are  accented  accordingly. 

Note  3.— When  two  short  syllables  of  an  equivalent  take  the  place  of  an  accented 
tong  syllable  of  the  original  foot,  the  ictus,  properly  belongs  to  both  of  these  syllables,  but 
Is  marked  upon  the  first.  Thus  a Tribrach  used  for  an  Iambus  is  marked  ^ 

600.  Arsis  and  Thesis. — The  accented  part  of  each  foot  is 
called  the  Arsis  {raising).,  and  the  unaccented  part,  the  Thesis 
{lowering).^ 

601.  Verses. — Averse  is  a line  of  poetry  (596).  It  has  one 
characteristic  or  fundamental  foot,  which  determines  the  ictus  for 
the  whole  verse. 

Note  !.— Thus  every  dactylic  verse  has  the  ictus  on  the  first  syllable  of  each  foot, 
because  the  Dactyl  has  the  ictus  on  that  syllable. 

1 Greek  writers  on  versification  ori||^nally  used  the  terms  apo-t?  and  Qi(n<s  of  raising 
and  putting  dozen  the  foot  in  marching  or  in  beating  time.  Thus  the  Thesis  was  the 
accented  part  of  the  foot,  and  the  Arsis  the  unaccented  part.  The  Romans,  however,  ap  - 
plied the  terms  to  raising  and  lowering  the  voice  in  reading.  Thus  Arsis  came  to 
mean  the  accented  part  of  the  foot,  and  Thesis  the  unaccented  part.  The  terms  have 
now  been  so  long  and  so  generally  used  in  this  sense  that  it  is  not  deemed  advisable  tc 
attempt  to  restore  them  to  their  original  signification. 


353 


NAMES  OF  VERSES. 


Note  2. — Two  verses  sometimes  unite  and  form  a compound  verse ; see  638,  X 

Note  3. — Metre  means  measure^  and  is  variously  used,  sometimes  designating  the 
measure  or  quantity  of  syllables,  and  sometimes  the  foot  or  measwre  * of  a verse. 

602.  Caesura  or  Caesural  Pause. — Most  Latin  verses  are 
divided  metrically  into  two  nearly  equal  parts,  each  of  which 
forms  a rhythmic  series.  The  pause,  however  slight,  which  nat- 
urally separates  these  parts  is  called — 

1.  A Caesura^^  or  a Caesural  Pause,  when  it  occurs  within  a foot ; 
see  611. 

2.  A Diaeresis,  when  it  occurs  at  the  end  of  a foot;  see  611,  2 
and  3. 

Note. — Some  verses  consist  of  three  parts  thus  separated  by  caesura  or  diaeresis, 
while  some  consist  of  a single  rhythmic  series. 3 

603.  The  full  metrical  name  of  a verse  consists  of  three  parts. 

The  first  designates  the  characteristic  foot,  the  second  gives  the 
number  of  feet  or  measures,  and  the  third  shows  whether  the  verse 
is  complete  or  incomplete.  Thus — 

1.  A Dactylic  Hexameter  Acatalectic  is  a dactylic  verse  of  six  feet  {Hexa- 
meter'), all  of  which  are  complete  {Acatalectic). 

2.  A Trochaic  Dimeter  Cdtalectic  is  a trochaic  verse  of  two  measures 
{Dimeter),  the  last  of  which  is  incomplete  {Catalectic). 

Note  1. — A verse  with  a Dactyl  as  its  characteristic  foot  is  called  Dactylic;  with  a 
Trochee,  Trochaic;  with  an  Iambus,  Iambic^  etc. 

Note  2. — A verse  consisting  of  one  measure  is  called  Monometer  ; of  two.  Dimeter; 
of  three,  Trimeter;  of  four,  Tetr-ameter  ; of  Pentameter ; of  six.  Hexameter. 

Note  3.— A verse  which  closes  with  a complete is  called  Acatalectic;  ^ with 
an  incomplete  measure,  Catalectic;  ^ with  an  excess  of  syllables,  Hypermetrical.^ 

Note  4.— The  term  Acatalectic  is  often  omitted,  as  a verse  may  be  assumed  to  be 
complete  unless  the  opposite  is  stated. 

Note  5.— A Catalectic  verse  is  said  to  be  catalectic  in  syllabam,  in  disyllabum,  oi 
in  trisyllabum,  according  as  the  incomplete  foot  has  one,  two,  or  three  syllables. 

Note  6. — Verses  are  sometimes  briefly  designated  by  the  number  of  feet  or  measure»' 
which  they  contain.  Thus  Hexameter  (six  measures)  sometimes  designates  the  Dactylic 
Hexameter  Acatalectic,  and  Senarius  (six  feet),  the  lambic  Trimeter  Acatalectic. 

604.  Verses  are  often  designated  by  names  derived  from  cele- 
brated poets. 

Note  1. — Thus  Alcaic  is  derived  from  Alcaeus;  Archilochian,  from  Archilochus; 
Sapphic,  from  Sappho ; Glyconie,  from  Glycon,  etc. 

1 In  dactylic  verses  a measure  is  a single  foot,  but  in  trochaic  and  iambic  verses  it 
is  a dipody  or  a pair  of  feet. 

2 Caesura- (from  caedb,  to  cut)  means  a cutting;  it  cuts  or  divides  the  foot  and  the 
verse  into  parts. 

3 A verse  consisting  of  a single  series  is  called  Monocolon;  of  two.  Dicolon;  cl 
three.  Tricolon. 

^ From  the  Greek  aKardhrjKTOs,  KaTaArj#cTi/c»5s,  and  VTrep/xerpos. 


FIGURES  OF  PROSODY. 


353 


Note  2. — Yerses  sometimes  receive  a name  from  the  kind  of  subjects  to  which  they 
were  applied : as  Heroic,  applied  to  heroic  subjects ; Paroemiao.  to  proverbs,  etc. 

605.  The  Final  Syllable  of  a verse  may  generally  be  either 
long  or  short  at  the  pleasure  of  the  poet. 

606.  A Stanza  is  a combination  of  two  or  more  verses  of  dif- 
ferent metres  into  one  metrical  whole  ; see  631. 

Note. — A stanza  of  two  lines  or  verses  is  called  a Distich;  of  three,  a Tristich;  of 
four,  a Tetrastich. 

607.  Rhythmical  Reading. — In  reading  Latin  verse  care  must 
be  taken  to  preserve  the  words  unbroken,  to  show  the  quantity  of 
the  syllables,  and  to  mark  the  poetical  ictus. 

Note.— Scanning  consists  in  separating  a poem  or  verse  into  the  feet  of  which  it  is 
composed.  ^ 

608.  Figures  of  Prosody. — The  ancient  poets  sometimes  al- 
lowed themselves,  in  the  use  of  letters  and  syllables,  certain  liber- 
ties generally  termed  Figures  of  Prosody. 

I.  Elision. — A final  vowel,  a final  diphthong,  or  a final  m with  the  pre- 
ceding vowel,  is  generally  elided  ^ before  a word  beginning  with  a vowel 
or  with  li : 

Monstr"“  horrend"™  informe  ingens,  for  Monstrum  horrendum  informe 
ingens.  Verg. 

Note  1. — For  Exceptions.^  see  Hiatus^  II.,  below. 

Note  2. — Final  e in  the  interrogative  ne  is  sometimes  dropped  before  a consonant : 

Pyrrhin’  connubia  servas  ? for  Pyrrhine  connubia  servas  ? Verg. 

Note  3.— In  the  early  poets  final  s is  often  dropped  before  consonants : 

Ex  omnibu’  rebus, /or  ex  omnibus  rebus.  Lucr. 

Note  4. — The  elision  of  a final  m with  the  preceding  vowel  is  sometimes  called 
Ecthlipsis.^ 

Note  5. — The  elision  of  a final  vowel  or  diphthong,  or  of  a final  m with  the  preceding 
vowel,  is  sometimes  called  Synaloepha.^^  or,  if  at  the  end  of  a line,  Synapheia.^ 

II.  Hiatus. — A final  vowel  or  diphthong  is  sometimes  retained  before 
a word  beginning  with  a vowel.  Thus — 

1.  The  interjections  d,  and  pro  are  not  elided;  see  Verg.,  Aen.,  X., 
18;  Geor.,  II.,  486. 

2.  Long  vowels  and  diphthongs  are  sometimes  retained,  especially  in  the 
“irsis  of  a foot ; see  Verg.,  Ec.,  HI.,  6 ; VII.,  52. 

1 In  school  this  is  sometimes  done  in  a purely  mechanical  way,  sacrificing  words  to 
feet;  but  even  this  mechanical  process  is  often  useful  to  the  beginner,  as  it  makes  him 
familiar  with  the  poetical  ictus. 

2 That  is,  partially  suppressed.  In  reading,  it  should  be  lightly  and  indistinctly 
sounded,  and  blended  with  the  following  syllable,  as  in  English  poetry : 

“ The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers.” 

P From  the  Greek  <rvva\oi<f)Tjf  and  awd^ecot,. 

24 


354 


DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER. 


Note  1. — This  is  most  common  in  proper  names. 

Note  2. — Vergil  employs  this  form  of  hiatus  more  freely  than  the  other  Latin  poeta 
and  yet  the  entire  Aeneid  furnishes  only  a short  list  of  examples. 

Note  3. — In  the  thesis  a final  long  vowel  or  diphthong  is  sometimes  shortened  before 
a short  vowel  instead  of  being  elided ; see  Verg.,  Aen.,  111.,  211 ; VI.,  607. 

Note  4. — Hiatus  with  a short  final  vowel  is  rare,  but  occurs  even  in  Vergil ; see  Aen., 
I.,  405 ; Ec.,  II.,  53. 

III.  Synaeresis. — Two  syllables  are  sometimes  contracted  into  one : 

aur^,  delude,  dmnceps,  Ildem,  ilsdem,  e^dem.,  prohibeat  (pronounced 

proibeat). 

Note  1. — In  the  different  parts  of  desum.,  ee  is  generally  pronounced  as  one  syllable: 
d^sse.,  d^st^  dMra%  d^rit.,  etc. ; so  in  the  verb  anteeo : ant^re^  antWirem.,  antela., 
anIMt. 

Note  2. — /and  u before  vowels  are  sometimes  used  as  consonants  with  the  sound  of 
y&n^w.  Thus  and  ariete  become  abyete  and  aryete;  gemua  and  tenues  be- 

come gewwa  and  tenwes. 

Note  3. — In  Plautus  and  Terence,  Synaeresis  is  used  with  great  freedom. 

Note  4. — The  contraction  of  two  syllables  into  one  is  sometimes  called  Synizesis. 

IV.  Diaeresis. — In  poetry,  two  syllables  usually  contracted  into  one 
are  sometimes  retained  distinct  : 

aural  for  aurae,  Orpheus  for  Orph^s,  soluendus  for  solvendus,  silua  for 
silva. 

Note. — Diaeresis  properly  means  the  resolution  of  one  syllable  into  two,  but  the 
Latin  poets  seldom,  if  ever,  actually  make  two  syllables  out  of  one.  The  examples  gen. 
erally  explained  by  diaeresis  are  only  ancient  forms,  used  for  effect  or  convenience. 

V.  Diastole. — A syllable  usually  short  is  sometimes  long,  especially 
in  the  arsis  of  a foot : 

Priamides  for  Priamides. 

Note  1. — This  poetic  license  occurs  chiefly  in  proper  names  and  in  final  syllables. 

Note  2. — Vergil  uses  this  license  quite  freely.  He  lengthens  que  in  sixteen  instances. 

VI.  Systole. — A syllable  usually  long  is  sometimes  short : 

tulerunt  for  tulerunt,  steterunt  for  steterunt  (336,  note),  vide’n  for 
videsne. 

Note.— This  poetic  license  occurs  most  frequently  in  final  vowels  and  diphthongs. 

VII.  Syncope. — An  entire  foot  is  sometimes  occupied  by  a single  long 
syllable ; see  614. 

SECTION  II. 

VARIETIES  OF  VERSE. 

I,  Dactylic  Hexameter. 

609.  All  Dactylic  Verses  consist  of  Dactyls  and  their  metrical 
equivalents,  Spondees.  The  ictus  is  on  the  first  syllable  of  every 
foot. 


DACTYLiyJ  HEXAMETER. 


355 


610.  The  Dactylic  Hexameter  ^ consists  of  six  feet.  The  first 
four  are  either  Dactyls  or  Spondees,  the  fifth  a Dactyl,  and  the 
sixth  a Spondee  (605).^  The  scale  is,^ 


Quadrupe-  | dante  pu-  | trem  soni-  | tu  quatit  | ungula  | campum.  Verg. 

Arma  vi-  | rumque  ca-  | no  Tro-  | jae  qui  | primus  ab  | oris.  Verg. 

Tnfan-  | dum  re-  | gina  ju-  | bes  reno-  | vare  do-  | lorem.  Verg. 

111!  ® in-  I ter  se-  | se  mag-  | na  vl  | bracchia  | tollunt.  Verg.^ 

1.  The  scale  of  dactylic  hexameters  admits  sixteen  varieties,  produced  by 
varying  the  relative  number  and  arrangement  of  Dactyls  and  Spondees.  Thus 
a verse  may  contain — 

1)  Five  Dactyls  and  one  Spondee,  as  in  the  first  example  above. 

2)  Four  Dactyls  and  two  Spondees,  admitting  four  different  arrangements. 

8)  Three  Dactyls  and  three  Spondees,  admitting  six  different  arrangements. 

4)  Two  Dactyls  and  four  Spondees,  admitting  four  different  arrangements. 

5)  One  Dactyl  and  five  Spondees,  as  in  the  fourth  example. 

2.  Effect  of  Dactyls. — Dactyls  produce  a rapid  movement,  and  are 
adapted  to  lively  subjects.  Spondees  produce  a slow  movement,  and  are 
adapted  to  grave  subjects.  But  generally  the  best  effect  is  produced  in  suc- 
cessive lines  by  variety  in  the  number  and  arrangement  of  Dactyls  and  Spon- 
dees. 

3.  Spondaic  Line. — The  Hexameter  sometimes  takes  a Spondee  in  the 


1 This  is  at  once  the  most  important  and  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  Greek  and  Ko- 
man  metres.  In  Greece  it  attained  its  perfection  in  the  poems  of  Homer.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  Italy  in  a somewhat  imperfect  form  by  the  poet  Ennius  about  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  before  Christ;  but  it  was  improved  by  Lucretius,  Catullus,  and  oth- 
ers, until  it  attained  great  excellence  in  the  works  of  the  Augustan  poets.  The  most 
beautiful  and  finished  Latin  Hexameters  are  found  in  the  works  of  Ovid  and  Vergil. 

2 The  Dactylic  Hexameter  in  Latin  is  here  treated  as  Acatalectic.,  as  the  Latin  poets 
seem  to  have  regarded  the  last  foot  as  a genuine  Spondee,  thus  making  the  measure 
complete.  See  Christ,  ‘Metrik  der  Griechen  und  Romer,’  pp.  110,  164. 

3 In  this  scale  the  sign  ' marks  the  ictus  (599),  and  _ oo  denotes  that  the  original 

Dactyl,  marked  — v-/  may  become  by  contraction  a Spondee,  marked , i.  e.,  that  a 

Spondee  may  be  used  for  a Dactyl  (598). 

■*  Expressed  in  musical  characters,  this  scale  is  as  follows : 


® The  final  I of  illl  is  elided;  see  608,  I. 

® With  these  lines  of  Vergil  cona^are  the  following  Hexameters  from  the  Evangeline 
of  Longfellow : 

“This  is  the  forest  primeval;  but  where  are  the  hearts  that  beneath  it 
Leaped  like  the  roe,  when  he  hears  in  the  woodland  the  voice  of  the  huntsman  ? ” 


alent  J J may  be  used. 


I n 

means  that,  instead  of  the  original  measure  ^ ^ & , the  equiv- 


356 


DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER 


fifth  place.  It  is  then  called  Spondaic,  and  generally  has  a Dactyl  as  its 
fourth  foot : 

Cara  de-  | um  soho-  | les  mag-  | num  Jovis  | incre-  | mentum.  Verg. 

Note. — In  Yergil,  spondaic  lines  are  used  much  more  sparingly  than  in  the  earliei 
poets  J and  generally  end  in  words  of  three  or  four  syllables,  as  in  incrementum  above.2 

611.  Caesura,  or  Caesural  Pause. — The  favorite  caesural 
pause  of  the  Hexameter  is  after  the  arsis^  or  in  the  thesis^  of  the 
third  foot  : ® 

Arma-  | tl  ten-  | dunt ; H it  | clamor  et  | agmine  | facto.  Verg. 

Infan-  | dum,  re-  | gina,  |1  ju-  | bes  reno-  | vare  do-  | lorem.  Verg. 

Note.— In  the  first  line,  the  caesural  pause,  marked  1| , is  after  tendunt.,  after  the 
arsis  of  the  third  foot ; and  in  the  second  line  after  reglna.,  in  the  thesis  {na  ju)  of  the 
third  foot.  The  former  is  called  the  Masculine  Caesura  the  latter  the  Feminine  Cae- 
sura. 4 

1.  The  Caesueal  Pause  is  sometimes  in  the  fourth,  foot,  and  then  an  ad- 
ditional pause  is  often  introduced  in  the  second : 

Credide-  ) rim ; li  ver  | illud  e-  | rat,  II  ver  | magnus  a-  | gehat.  Verg. 

2.  Bucolic  Diaeeesis. — A pause  called  the  Bucolic  Diaeresis.^^  because 
originally  used  in  the  pastoral  poetry  of  the  Greeks,  sometimes  occurs  at  the 
end  of  the  fourth  foot : 

Ingen-  | tern  cae-  | lo  soni-  | turn  dedit ; II  inde  se-  | cutus.  Verg. 

Note. — The  Bucolic  Diaeresis  was  avoided  by  the  best  Latin  poets,  even  in  treating 
pastoral  subjects.  Vergd,  even  in  his  Bucolics,  uses  it  very  sparingly. 

3.  A Diaeeesis  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot  without  any  proper  caesural 
pause  is  regarded  as  a blemish  in  the  verse : 

Pulveru-  I lentus  e-  | quis  furit ; n omnes  | arma  re-  | quirunt.  Verg. 

' A single  poem  of  Catullus,  about  half  as  long  as  a book  of  the  Aeneid,  contains  more 
spondaic  lines  than  all  the  works  of  Yergil. 

2 But  Yergil  has  two  spondaic  lines  ending  et  mdgnls  dis;  see  Aen.,  III.,  12,  and 
YIII.,  6T9. 

3 That  is,  the  first  rhythmic  series  ends  at  this  point.  This  pause  is  always  at  the 
end  of  a word,  and  may  be  so  very  slight  as  in  most  cases  not  to  interfere  with  the  sense, 
even  if  no  mark  of  punctuation  is  required;  but  the  best  verses  are  so  constructed  that 
the  caesural  pause  coincides  with  a pause  in  the  sense ; see  Christ,  ‘ Metrik,’  p.  184.  Ac- 
cording to  some  writers,  the  Dactylic  Hexameter  had  its  origin  in  the  union  of  two  ear- 
lier dactylic  verses,  and  the  caesural  pause  now  marks  the  point  of  union ; see  Christ, 
p.  173. 

^ The  Masculine  Caesura  is  also  cabled  the  Strong.,  or  the  Syllabic.,  Caesura,  the  Fem- 
inine the  Weak.,  or  the  Trochaic.,  Caesura.  Caesuras  are  often  named  from  the  place 
which  they  occupy  in  the  line.  Thus  a caesura  after  the  arsis  of  the  second  foot  is  called 
Trihemimeral ; after  the  arsis  of  the  third,  Penthemimeral ; after  the  arsis  of  the 
fourth,  Hephthemimeral. 

s Also  called  the  Bucolic  Caesura.,  as  the  term  caesura  is  often  mad«  to  include 


DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER. 


357 


4.  The  ending  of  a word  within  a foot  always  produces  a caesura.  A line 
may  therefore  have  several  caesuras,  but  generally  only  one  of  these  is  marked 
by  any  perceptible  pause  : 

Arma  vi-  | rumque  ca-  | no,  II  Tro-  | jae  qui  | primus  ab  ] oris.  Verg. 

Note. — Here  there  is  a caesura  in  every  foot  except  the  last,  but  only  one  of  these, 
that  after  cuwo,  in  the  third  foot,  has  the  caesural  pause.  ^ 

5.  The  caesura,  with  or  without  the  pause,  is  an  important  feature  in  every 
hexameter.  A line  without  it  is  prosaic  in  the  extreme : 

Komae  | moenia  | terruit  | impiger  | Hannibal  | armis.  Enn. 

Note  1. — The  Penthemimeral‘^  caesura  has  great  power  to  impart  melody  to  the. 
verse,  but  the  best  effect  is  produced  when  it  is  aided  by  other  caesuras,  as  above. 

Note  2. — A happy  effect  is  often  produced — 

1)  By  combining  feminine  caesura  in  the  third  foot  with  the  hejphthemimeral 
and  the  trihemimeral : 

Donee  e-  j ris  fe-  | lix,  ||  mul-  | tos  nume-  I rabis  a-  | micos.  Verg. 

2)  By  combining  the  hephthemimeral  with  the  trihemimeral: 

Inde  to-  1 ro  pater  1 Aene-  | as  sic  1 orsus  ab  | alto.  Verg. 

Note  3. — The  union  of  the  feminine  caesura  with  the  trihemimeral.,  common  in 
Greek,  is  somewhat  rare  in  Latin,  but  it  sometimes  produces  an  harmonious  verse: 
Praecipi-  | tat,  sua-  ] dentque  ca-  ] dentia  | sidera  | somnos.  Verg. 

Note  4.— In  the  last  two  feet  of  the  verse  there  should  in  general  be  no  caesura  what- 
ever, unless  it  falls  in  the  thesis  of  the  fifth  foot;  but  when  that  foot  contains  two  entire 
words,  a caesura  is  admissible  after  the  arsis. 

612.  The  ictus  often  falls  upon  unaccented  syllables.  Thus — 

1.  In  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  feet  of  the  verse  it  falls  some- 
times upon  accented  and  sometimes  upon  unaccented  syllables  ; see 
examples  under  610. 

2.  In  the  third  foot  it  generally  falls  upon  an  unaccented  sylla- 
ble ; see  examples  under  610. 

3.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  feet  it  generally  falls  upon  accented  syl- 
lables ; see  examples  under  610. 

613.  The  Last  Word  of  the  Hexameter  is  generally  either 
a dissyllable  or  a trisyllable  ; see  examples  under  610  and  611.^ 

1 The  caesura  with  the  pause  is  variously  called  the  chief  caesura.,  the  caesura  oj 
the  rerse.,  the  caesura  of  the  rhythm.,  etc.  In  distinction  from  this  any  other  caesura 
may  be  called  a caesura.^  a caesura  of  the  foot.,  or  a minor  caesura. 

2 See  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 

3 The  learner  should  be  informed  that  the  niceties  of  structure  which  belong  to  fin- 
ished Latin  hexameters  must  be  sought  only  in  the  poems  of  Yergil  and  Ovid.  The  hap- 
piest disposition  of  caesuras,  the  best  adjustment  of  the  poetical  ictus  to  the  prose  accent, 
and  the  most  approved  structure  in  the  closing  measures  of  the  verse,  can  not  be  expected 
in  the  rude  numbers  of  Ennius,  in  the  scientific  discussions  of  Lucretius,  or  even  in  the 
familiar  Satires  of  Horace.  Those  interested  in  the  peculiarities  of  Latin  hexameters  in 
different  writers  will  find  a discussion  of  the  subject  in  Lucian  Muller’s  work,  ‘Dere 
metrica  poetarum  Latinorum  praeter  Plautum  et  Terentium  libri  septem.’ 


358 


LACTYLIO  VERSE. 


Note  1. — Spondaic  lines  are  exceptions;  see  610,  3,  note. 

Note  2. — Two  monosyllables  at  the  end  of  a line  are  not  particularly  objectionable 
and  sometimes  even  produce  a happy  effect : 

Praecipi-  j tant  cu-  | rae,  1|  tur-  [ bataque  | funere  | mens  est.  Verg. 

Note  3. — Est^  even  when  not  preceded  by  another  monosyllable,  may  stand  at  the 
md  of  a line. 

Note  4. — A single  monosyllable,  except  est^  is  not  often  used  at  the  end  of  the  line, 
•ixcept  for  the  purpose  of  emphasis  or  humor: 

Parturi-  | unt  raon-  | tes,  I|  nas-  | cetur  | ridicu-  [ lus  mus.  Ilor. 

Note  5.— In  Yergil,  twenty-one  lines,  apparently  hypermetrical  (603,  note  3),  are 
supposed  to  elide  a final  vowel  or  a final  em  or  um  before  the  initial  vowel  of  the  next 
line;  see  Aen.,  I.,  332 ; Geor.,  I.,  295.  See  also  608, 1.,  note  5. 

II.  Other  Dactylic  Yerses. 

614.  Dactylic  Pentameter.' — The  Dactylic  Pentameter  con- 
sists of  two  parts  separated  by  a diaeresis.  Each  part  consists  of 
two  Dactyls  and  a long  syllable.  The  Spondee  may  take  the  place 
of  the  Dactyl  in  the  first  part,  but  not  in  the  second  : 

or 

^ I -L  I L_J 

Admoni-  ] tii  coe-  | pi  1 1 fortior  | esse  tu-  | o.  Ovid. 

615.  Elegiac  Distich. — The  Elegiac  Distich  consists  of  the 
Hexameter  followed  by  the  Pentameter  : 

Semise  [ pulta  vi-  | rum  1|  cur-  | vis  feri-  | untur  a-  | ratrls 
Ossa,  ru-  | Ino-  | sas  1 1 occulit  | herba  do-  | mus.  Ovid. 

Note  1. — In  reading  the  Elegiac  Distich,  the  Pentameter,  including  pauses,  should 
of  course  occupy  the  same  time  as  the  Hexameter. 

Note  2. — Elegaic  composition  should  be  characterized  by  grace  and  elegance.  Both 
members  of  the  distich  should  be  constructed  in  accordance  with  the  most  rigid  rules  of 
metre.  The  sense  should  be  complete  at  the  end  of  the  couplet.  Ovid  furnishes  us  the 
best  specimens  of  this  style  of  composition. 

616.  The  Dactylic  Tetrameter  is  identical  with  the  last  four 
feet  of  the  Hexameter  : 

Ibimus  I o soci-  | I,  comi-  | tesquc.  Hor. 

1 The  name  Pentameter  is  founded  on  the  ancient  division  of  the  line  into  five  feet; 
the  first  and  second  being  Dactyls  or  Spondees,  the  third  a Spondee,  the  fourth  and  fifth 
Anapaests. 

2 In  musical  characters: 

J j J pD  j J r I J J3  I J «D  j J r , or 

Thus,  in  reading  Pentameters,  a pause  may  be  introduced  after  the  long  syllable  in  the 
third  foot,  or  that  foot  may  be  lengthened  so  as  to  fill  the  measure. 


TROCHAIC  VERSE. 


359 


lifoTE. — In  compound  verses,  as  in  the  Greater  Archilochian^  the  tetrameter  in 
oomposition  with  other  metres  has  a Dactyl  in  the  fourth  place;  see  628,  X. 

617.  The  Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic  is  identical  with 
the  second  half  of  the  Dactylic  Pentameter  : 

Arbori-  | basque  co-  | mae.  Ilor. 

Not3. — The  Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic  is  also  known  as  the  Lesser  Archilochian, 


III.  Trochaic  Verse. 


618.  The  Trochaic  Dipod y,  the  measure  in  Trochaic  verse,  ^ 
consists  of  two  Trochees,  the  second  of  which  is  sometimes  irra- 
tional (598,  1,  1) ) — i.  e.,  it  has  the  form  of  a Spondee  with  the  time 
of  a Trochee : _ i k i k 


Note  1. — By  the  ordinary  law  of  equivalents  (598),  a Tribrach  v--*  w may  take  the 
place  of  the  Trochee  v-^,  and  an  apparent  Anapaest  > the  place  of  the  Irrational 

Trochee  — In  proper  names  a cyclic  Dactyl  w (598, 1,  3) ) may  occur  in  either 
foot. 

Note  2. — In  the  Trochaic  Dipody,  the  first  foot  has  a heavier  ictus  than  the  second. 

Note  3. — A syllable  is  sometimes  prefixed  to  a Trochaic  verse.  A syllable  thus  used 
is  called  Anacrusis  (upward  beat),  and  is  separated  from  the  following  measure  by  the 
inark  • . 


619.  The  Trochaic  Dimeter  Catalectic  consists  of  two  Tro- 
chaic Dipodies  with  the  last  foot  incomplete.  In  Horace  it  admits 
no  equivalents,  and  has  the  following  scale  : 


Aula  divi-  | tern  manet.  Bor. 

Note. — A Trochaic  Tripody  occurs  in  the  Greater  Archilochian ; see  628,  X. 

1.  The  Alcaic  Enneasy liable  verse  which  forms  the  third  line  in  the  Al- 
caic stanza  is  a Trochaic  Dimeter  with  Anacrusis : 

> * ' > I ' 

Pu-  I er  quis  ex  au-  | la  capillis.  Bor. 

620.  The  Trochaic  Tetrameter  Catalectic  consists  of  four 
Trochaic  Dipodies  with  the  last  foot  incomplete.  There  is  a diae- 
resis (602,  2)  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  foot,  and  the  incomplete  dipody 
admits  no  equivalents ; 

— ^11— ^ — A*^ 

Primus  ad  ci-  | bum  vocatur,  1 1 primo  pulmen-  | turn  datur.  Plant. 


* See  601,  note  3,  with  foot-note. 

2 Thus  in  the  second  foot  of  a Trochaic  Dipody  the  poet  may  use  a Trochee,  a Tribrach, 
a Spondee,  or  an  Anapaest ; but  the  Spondee  and  the  Anapaest  are  pronounced  in  the 
same  time  as  the  Trochee  or  the  Tribrach — i.  e.,  they  have  irrational  time, 
s Only  the  leading  ictus  of  each  dipody  is  here  marked. 


360 


IAMBIC  VERSE. 


Note  1. — This  is  simply  the  union  of  two  Trochaic  Dimeters,  the  first  acatalectic 
and  the  second  catalectic^  separated  by  diaeresis.^ 

Note  2.— In  Latin  this  verse  is  used  chiefly  in  comedy,  and  accordingly  admits  great 
licence  in  the  use  of  feet.  The  Irrational  Trochee  (598,  1, 1) ) and  its  equivalents  may 
occur  in  any  foot  except  in  the  last  dipody. 

Note  3.— The  Trochaic  Tetramet&r  Acatalectic  also  occurs  in  the  earlier  poets  : 

Ipse  summis  | saxis  fixus  1|  asperis  e-  1 visceratus.  Enn. 

IV.  Iambic  Verse. 

62 1 . The  Iambic  Dipody,  the  measure  of  lambic  verse,  consists 
of  two  Iambi,  the  first  of  which  is  sometimes  irrational  (598,  1,  2) ) 
— i.  e. , it  has  the  form  of  a Spondee  with  the  time  of  an  Iambus  : 

or 

Note  1. — The  Tribrach  for  the  Iambus,  and  the  Dactyl‘s  or  Anapaest  2 for  the  Irra- 
tional Iambus,  are  rare,  except  in  comedy. 

Note  2.— In  the  Ionic  Dipody,  the  first  foot  has  a heavier  ictus  than  the  second. 

622.  The  Iambic  Trimeter,  also  called  Senarius^  consists  of 
three  lambic  Dipodies.  The  Caesura  is  usually  in  the  third  foot^ 
but  may  be  in  the  fourth  : 

Quid  ohsera-  | tis  1 1 auribus  | fundis  preces  ? Hor. 

Neptunus  al-  | to  11  tundit  hi-  1 bernus  salo.  Hor. 

Has  inter  epu-  1 las  1 1 ut  juvat  | pastas  oves.  Hor.^ 

1.  In  Peopee  Names,  a Cyclic  Anapaest  is  admissible  in  any  foot  except 
the  last,  but  must  be  in  a single  word. 

2.  In  Hoeace  the  only  feet  freely  admitted  are  the  Iambus  and  the  Spon 
dee ; their  equivalents,  the  Tribrach,  the  Dactyl,  and  the  Anapaest,  are  used 
very  sparingly.  The  Tribrach  never  occurs  in  the  fifth  foot  and  only  once 
in  the  first.  The  Anapaest  occurs  only  twice  in  all. 

3.  In  Comedy  great  liberty  is  taken,  and  the  Spondee  and  its  equivalents 
are  freely  admitted  in  any  foot  except  the  last. 


1 Compare  the  corresponding  English  measure,  in  which  the  two  parts  appear  as 

separate  lines . » great  men  j all'  remind  us 

We'  can  make  our  | lives'  sublime, 

And',  departing,  | leave'  behind  us 
Foot'prints  on  the  | sands'  of  time.” 

2 The  Dactyl  thus  used  has  the  time  of  an  Iambus  and  is  marked  > ^ w;  the  Ana- 
paest is  cyclic  (598, 1,  4),  marked 

3 This  same  scale,  divided  thus,  ^ — — A,  repre- 

sents Trochaic  Trimeter  Catalectic  with  Anacrusis.  Thus  all  lambic  verses  may  be 
treated  as  Trochaic  verses  with  Anacrusis. 

^ Compare  the  English  Alexandrine,  the  last  line  of  the  Spenserian  stanza  .* 

When  Phoe'bus  lifts  1 his  head'  out  of  ] the  win 'teris  wave. 


1 \Jd.y  X \y 


VERSE. 


361 


4.  The  Choliambus  is  a variety  of  Iambic  Trimeter  with  a Trochee  in  the 
sixth  foot : ^ 

Miser  Catul-  | le  desinas  | ineptire.  Catul. 

623.  The  Iambic  Trimeter  Catalectic  occurs  in  Horace  with 
the  following  scale  : 

V ocatus  at-  | que  non  voca-  | tus  audit.  IJor. 

Note. — The  Dactyl  and  the  Anapaest  are  not  admissible ; the  Tribrach  occurs  only  in 
the  second  foot. 

624.  The  Iambic  Dimeter  consists  of  two  lambic  Dipodies : 

> I > 

Queruntur  in  [ silvis  aves.  Hor. 

Imbres  nives-  | que  comparat.  Hor. 

A st  ego  vicis-  | sim  risero.  Hor. 

Note  1,— Horaee  admits  the  Dactyl  only  in  the  first  foot,  the  Tribrach  only  in  the 
second,  the  Anapaest  not  at  all. 

Note  2.— lambic  Dimeter  is  sometimes  catalectic. 

625.  The  Iambic  Tetrameter  consists  of  four  lambic  Dipo- 
dies. It  belongs  chiefly  to  comedy  : 

Quantum  intellex-  | i modo  senis  1 1 sententiam  | de  nuptiis.  Ter. 

Note. — lambic  Tetrameter  is  sometimes  catalectic : 

Quot  commodas  [ res  attuli?  ||  quot  autem  ade  | mi  curas.  Ter. 

Y.  Ionic  Verse. 

626.  The  Ionic  Verse  in  Horace  consists  entirely  of  Lesser 
Ionics.  It  may  be  either  Trimeter  or  Dimeter  : 


Neque  pugno  | neque  segni  1 pede  victus; 

Catus  idem  | per  apertum.  Hor. 

Note  1. — In  this  verse  the  last  syllable  is  not  common,  but  is  often  long  only  by 
-position  (p.  B38,  foot-note  3).  Thus  us  in  metus  is  long  before  c in  catus. 

Note  2. — The  Ionic  Tetrameter  Catalectic.,  also  called  Sotadean  Verse.,  occurs 
chiefly  in  comedy.  It  consists  in  general  of  Greater  Ionics,  but  in  Martial  it  has  a Ditro- 
chee as  the  third  foot : 


Has  cum  gemi-  ] na  compede  | dedicat  ca-  | tenas.  Mart. 

1 Choliambus,  or  Season,  means  lame  or  limping  Iambus,  and  is  so  called  from 
its  limping  movement.  It  is  explained  as  a Trochaic  Trimeter  Acatalectic  with  Anacru- 
sis, and  with  syncope  (608,  VII.)  in  the  fifth  foot.  The  example  here  given  may  be  rep- 
resented thus  — v_^j  — v../!  \jL  — ^ 


362 


LOG  AO  EDIC  VERSE, 


VI.  Logaoedic  Verse. 

627.  Logaoedic  ^ Verse  is  a special  variety  of  Trochaic  Verse. 
The  Irrational  Trochee  ^ > , the  Cyclic  Dactyl  v-/,  and  the  Syn- 
copated Trochee  i—  (008,  VII.)  are  freely  admitted.  It  has  an  ap- 
parently light  ictus.  ^ 

Note. — Logaoedic  verses  show  great  variety  of  form,  but  a few  general  types  will  in- 
dicate the  character  of  the  whole. 

628.  The  following  Logaoedic  verses  appear  in  Horace  : 

I.  The  Adonic  : 

I o or  .rq  .NjJ 

Montis  i-  | mago.  Bor, 

II.  The  First  Pherecrati c or  the  Aristophanic  : 

- I ^ - 1 - or  ,1^  J'lJ  ,^|  J 

Cur  neque  | mlli-  | taris.  Bor. 

Note. — Pherecratie  is  the  technical  term  applied  to  the  regular  Logaoedic  Tripody. 
It  is  called  the  First  or  Second  Pherecratie  according  as  its  Dactyl  occupies  the  first  or 
the  second  place  in  the  verse.  In  each  form  it  may  be  acatalectic  or  catalecUc : 

1)  v_/  I V-/  I — or  catalectic:  w | -^  w | — A 

2)  -^  > I I c;  or  catalectic;  —>  | ^ | A 

In  Logaoedic  verse  the  term  basis  or  hase^  marked  x , is  sometimes  applied  to  the  foot  or 
feet  which  precede  the  Cyclic  Dactyl.  Thus,  in  the  Second  Pherecratie,  the  first  foot  _ > 
is  the  base. 

III.  The  Second  Glyconic  ® Catalectic  : 

^ > 1 I ^ I ^ A or  J J"1J  J T 

Donee  | gratus  e-  | ram  ti-  | bT.  Bor, 

Note  1. — Glyconic  is  the  technical  term  applied  to  the  regular  Logaoedic  Tetrapody. 
It  is  called  the  First,  Second,  or  Third  Glyconic  according  as  its  Dactyl  occupies  the  first, 
second,  or  third  place  in  the  verse.  In  each  form  it  may  be  either  acatalectic  or  catalectic. 
Note  2. — The  Second  Glyconic  sometimes  has  a Syncope  (608,  YII.)  in  the  third  foot. 

IV.  The  Lesser  Asclepiadean  ® consists  of  two  Catalectic  PJie- 
recratics^  a Second  and  a First : 

Maece-  | nas  ata  | vis  1 1 edite  | regi-  | bus.  Bor, 

1 From  Aoyo?,  prose,  and  aotSr/,  song,  applied  to  verses  which  resemble  prose. 

2 The  free  use  of  long  syllables  in  the  thesis  causes  the  poetical  ictus  on  the  arsis  to 
appear  less  prominent. 

3 Pherecratie,  Glyconic,  and  Asclepiadean  verses  may  be  explained  as  Choriambic : 

Pherecratie,  ^ |^A 

First  Glyconic, 

Auclepiadcan,  -^> 


LOGAOEDIC  VERSE, 


363 


y.  The  Greater  Asclepiadean  consists  of  three  catalectic 
verses,  a Second  Pherecratie^  an  Adonic,,  and  a First  Pherecratie : 

— I ^ I • — II  I II  ^ 1 — I — A 

Seu  plu-  I res  hie-  | mes,  ||  seu  tribu-  | it  II  Juppiter  1 ulti-  | mam.  Hor. 

VI.  The  Lesser  Sapphic  consists  of  a Trochaic  Dipody  and  a 
First  Pherecratie : 

I I I 

Namque  | me  sil-  | va  lupus  | in  Sa-  | bina.  Hor. 

VII.  The  Greater  Sapphic  consists  of  two  Catalectic  Glyconics., 
a Third  and  a First  with  Syncope  : 

1-a.w|l_||A.v.|^v^|l_|^A 
Inter  | aequa-  | les  equi-  [ tat,  1 1 Gallica  | nec  lu-  | pa-  | tis.  Hor. 

VIII.  The  Lesser  Alcaic  consists  of  two  Cyclic  Dactyls  and 
two  Trochees: 

-A./  I -A_/  ^ I I w 
Purpure-  | o vari-  | us  co-  | lore.  Hor. 

IX.  The  Greater  Alcaic  consists  of  a Trochaic  Dipody  with 
Anacrusis  and  a Catalectic  First  Pherecratie : 

> : I A 

Vi-  f des  ut  I alta  | stet  nive  | candi-  | dum.  Hor. 

X.  The  Greater  Archilochian  ^ consists  of  a Dactylic  Tetra- 
meter (616)  followed  by  a Trochaic  Tripody.  The  first  three  feet 
are  either  Dactyls  or  Spondees  ; the  fourth,  a Dactyl  ; and  the  last 
three,  Trochees : 

V itae  I summa  bre-  | vis  spem  | nos  vetat,  1 1 incho-  | are  | longam.  Bor. 

Note. — This  verse  may  be  explained  either  as  Logaoedic  or  as  Compound.  With  the 
first  explanation,  the  Dactyls  are  cyclic  and  the  Spondees  have  irrational  time;  with  the 
second  explanation,  the  first  member  of  the  verse  has  the  Dactyl  as  its  characteristic  foot 
and  the  second  member  the  Trochee;  see  601,  note  2. 

629.  The  following  Logaoedic  verses  not  used  in  Horace  de- 
serve mention  : 

I.  The  Phalaecian  is  a Logaoedic  Pentapody:  ^ 

Non  est  | vivere,  \ sed  va-  | lere  | vita.  Mart. 

* For  the  Lesser  Archilochian.  see  617,  note. 

* This  verse  differs  from  the  Lesser  Sapphic  in  having  the  Dactyl  in  the  second  foot, 
while  the  latter  has  the  Dactyl  in  the  third. 


364 


LYRIC  METRES  OF  HORACE. 


II.  The  Second  Priapean  consists  of  two  Catalectic  Second 
Glyconics  with  Syncope  : 

Quercus  | arida  1 rCisti-  I ca  1 1 confor-  | mata  se  | cu-  | rL  Catul. 


SECTION  III. 

THE  VERSIFICATION  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  LATIN  POETS. 

630.  Vergil  and  Juvenal  use  the  Dactylic  Hexameter ; Ovid, 
the  Hexameter  in  his  Metamorphoses  and  the  Elegiac  Distich  in  his 
Epistles  and  other  works ; Horace,  the  Hexameter  in  his  Epistles 
and  Satires,  and  a variety  of  metres  in  his  pdes  and  Epodes. 

Lyric  Metres  of  Horace. 

631.  For  convenience  of  reference,  an  outline  of  the  lyric 
metres  of  Horace  is  here  inserted. 


Stanzas  of  Four  Verses  or  Lines, 

I.  Alcaic  Stanza. — First  and  second  lines.  Greater  Alcaics  (628,  IX.) ; 
third,  Trochaic  Dimeter  with  Anacrusis  (619,  1);  fourth.  Lesser  Alcaic 
(628,  VIII.) : 


3. 

4.  I I I _ w 

In  thirty-seven  Odes : I.,  9, 16,  17,  26,  27,  29,  31,  34,  35,  37  ; IL,  1,  3,  5, 
7,  9,  11,  13,  14,  15,  17,  19,  20;  III.,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  17,  21,  23,  26,  29;  IV., 
4,  9,  14,  15. 


II.  Sapphic  Stanza. — The  first  three  lines,  Lesser  Sapphics  (628,  VI.); 
the  fourth,  Adonic  (628,  I.) : 

3.  ) 

In  twenty-six  Odes:  I.,  2,  10,  12,  20,  22,  25,  30,  32,  38;  IL,  2,  4,  6,  8, 
10,  16 ; III.,  8,  11,  14,  18,  20,  22,  27 ; IV.,  2,  6,  11 ; and  Secular  Hymn. 


HI.  Greater  Sapphic  Stanza. — First  and  third  lines,  First  Glyconics 
Catalectic  with  Syncope  in  the  third  foot  (608,  VII.) ; second  and  fourth 
lines.  Greater  Sapphics : 

1.  / 


LYRIC  METRES  OF  HORACE. 


365 


In  Ode  I.,  8. 

lY.  First  Asclepiadean  Glyconio  Stanza. — The  first  three  lines, 
Lesser  Asclepiadeans  (628,  lY.) ; the  fourth.  Second  Glyconie  Catalectio 
(628,111.):  1 

2. [  ->  A 

3.  ) 

4.  — > I — ^ ^ I — ^ I — A 

In  nine  Odes:  L,  6,  15,  24,  33;  IL,  12;  III.,  10,  16;  lY.,  5,  12. 


Y.  Second  Asclepiadean  Glyconic  Stanza. — The  first  two  lines.  Lesser 
Asclepiadeans  (628,  lY.);  the  third,  Second  Glyconic  Catalectic  with  Syn- 
cope in  the  third  foot  (628,  III.,  note  2);  the  fourth.  Second  Glyconic 
Catalectic  (628,  III.) : 

->  I — ^l^ii^-l--l-A 

3. 

4. 

In  seven  Odes:  I.,  5,  14,  21,  23  ; III.,  7,  13;  IV.,  13. 


VI.  Glyconic  Asclepiadean  Stanza. — First  and  third  lines.  Second 
Glyconics  Catalectic  (628,  III.) ; second  and  fourth.  Lesser  Asclepiadeans 
(628,  IV.): 


:1- 


- > 
> 


A 


A 


In  twelve  Odes:  L,  3,  13,  19,  36;  III.,  9,  15,  19,  24,  25,  28;  lY.,  1,  3. 


YII.  Lesser  Asclepiadean  Stanza. — Four  Lesser  Asclepiadeans : 

1.1 

2 I 


4-j 

In  three  Odes  : I.,  1 ; III.,  30;  lY.,  8. 


YIII.  Greater  Asclepiadean  Stanza. — Four  Greater  Asclepiadeans 
(628,  Y.): 


ir 

4-. 

In  three  Odes:  I.,  11,  18;  lY.,  10. 


366 


LYRIC  METRES  OF  HORACE, 


IX.  Double  Alcmanian  Stanza. — First  and  third  lines,  Dactylic  Hexa 
meters  (610);  second  and  fourth,  Dactylic  Tetrameters  (616): 


:;t  - 


In  two  Odes : L,  7,  28. 

Note. — This  stanza  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  Alcmanian  stanzas;  see  XIX.  below. 

X.  Trochaic  Stanza. — First  and  third  lines.  Trochaic  Dimeter  Catalec- 
tic  (619);  second  and  fourth,  lambic  Trimeter  Catalectic  (623) : 


1- 


I V-/ 


In  Ode  II.,  18. 

XL  Dactylic  Archilochian  Stanza. — First  and  third  lines.  Dactylic 
Hexameters ; second  and  fourth,  Catalectic  Dactylic  Trimeters  (617,  note): 


:}  1-= 


I j V 


1 
3, 

In  Ode  IV.,  7. 

XII.  Greater  Archilochian  Stanza. — First  and  third  lines,  Greater  Ar^ 
chilochians  (628,  X.) ; second  and  fourth,  lambic  Trimeter  Catalectic  (623): 


t\  1-— 1-— 1-- 

4.1 


In  Ode  I.,  4. 

Note.— The  second  and  fourth  lines  are  sometimes  read  with  syncope,  as  follows: 

> : |_^_^|  i_  1^  A 

XIII.  Ionic  Stanza. — First  and  second  lines,  Ionic  Dimeters  (626) ; 
third  and  fourth,  Ionic  Trimeters  (626) : 


, — I 


In  Ode  III.,  12. 

Note.— This  ode  is  variously  arranged  in  different  editions,  sometimes  in  stanzas  of 
three  lines  and  sometimes  of  four. 


LYRIC  METRES  OF  HORACE. 


367 


Stanzas  of  Three  Lines. 

XIV.  First  Archilochian  Stanza. — First  line,  Hexameter;  second, 
lambic  Dimeter;  third.  Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic: 


In  Epode  13. 

Note. — In  Botne  editions,  the  second  and  third  lines  are  united. 

XV.  Second  Archilochian  Stanza. — First  line,  lambic  Trimeter ; sec- 
ond, Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic ; third,  lambic  Dimeter : 


In  Epode  11. 

Note.— In  some  editions,  the  second  and  third  lines  are  united. 

Stanzas  of  Two  Lines. 

XVI.  Iambic  Stanza. — First  line,  lambic  Trimeter;  second,  lambic 

Dimeter:  , > . > i > ^ 

1.  I W 

2. 

In  the  first  ten  Epodes. 

XVII.  First  Pythiambic  Stanza. — First  line,  Dactylic  Hexameter ; 
second,  lambic  Dimeter  (624): 


In  Epodes  14  and  15. 

XVIII.  Second  Pythiambic  Stanza. — First  line.  Dactylic  Hexameter; 
second,  lambic  Trimeter : 


In  Epode  16. 

XIX.  Alcmanian  Stanza. — First  line,  Dactylic  Hexameter;  second, 
Dactylic  Tetrameter : 


In  Epode  12. 

Not  grouped  into  Stanzas. 
XX.  Iambic  Trimeter: 


368 


METRES  OF  CATULLUS. 


632.  Index  to  the  Lyeic  Metbes  of  Hokace. 

The  Roman  numerals  refer  to  articles  in  the  preceding  outline,  631. 


Book  I. 


ODUS. 

1 . . 
2 . . 

3 .. 

4 . . 
6 .. 
6 . 
n .. 
8 .. 
9 .. 

10  .. 
11  . . 
12  . . 

13  .. 

14  . . 

15  .. 

16  . 
\1  .. 
18  .. 

19  .. 

20  .. 
21  .. 
22  .. 

23  . . 

24  .. 

25  .. 

26  . . 

27  .. 

28  . . 

29  .. 

30  .. 

31  .. 

32  . . 

33  .. 

34  .. 

35  .. 

36  .. 

37  .. 

38  .. 


Book  II. 


ODES. 

METRES. 

ODES. 

METRES, 

METRES. 

4 .. 

II. 

26  

I. 

VII. 

5 .. 

I. 

27 

II. 

II. 

6 .. 

II. 

28  

VI. 

VI. 

7 .. 

I. 

29  

I. 

XII. 

8 . . 

II. 

30  

VII. 

V. 

9 .. 

I. 

IV. 

10  . . 

II. 

Book  IV. 

IX. 

11  .. 

I. 

1 

VI. 

III. 

12  .. 

IV. 

2 

II. 

I. 

13  . . 

I. 

3 

VI. 

II. 

14  .. 

I. 

4 

I. 

VIII. 

15  . . 

I. 

5 

IV. 

II. 

16  .. 

II. 

6 

II. 

VI. 

17  . . 

I. 

7 

XL 

V. 

18  . . 

X. 

8 

VII. 

IV. 

19  .. 

I. 

9 

I. 

I. 

20  . . 

I. 

10  

VIII. 

I. 

11  

II. 

VIII. 

Book  III. 

12  

IV. 

VI. 

1 .. 

I. 

13  

V. 

II. 

2 .. 

I. 

14  

I. 

V. 

3 .. 

I. 

15  

I. 

II. 

4 .. 

I. 

V. 

5 .. 

I. 

Epodes. 

IV. 

6 . . 

I. 

EPODES. 

METRES. 

II. 

7 . . 

V. 

1 

XVI. 

I. 

8 . . 

II. 

2 

XVI. 

' I. 

9 . . 

VI. 

3 . - 

XVI. 

IX. 

10  .. 

IV. 

4 ..'  

XVI. 

I. 

11  .. 

II. 

5 

XVI. 

II. 

12  .. 

XIII. 

6 

XVI. 

I. 

13  .. 

V. 

7 

XVI. 

II. 

14  .. 

II. 

8 

XVI. 

IV. 

15  . . 

VI. 

9 

XVI. 

I. 

16  .. 

IV. 

10  

XVI. 

I. 

17  .. 

I. 

11  

XV. 

VI. 

18  .. 

II. 

12  

XIX. 

I. 

19  .. 

VI. 

13  

XIV. 

II. 

20  .. 

II. 

14  

XVII. 

21  .. 

I. 

15  

XVII. 

22  .. 

II. 

16  

XVIII. 

I. 

23  .. 

I. 

17  

XX. 

II. 

24  .. 

VI. 

I. 

25  . . 

VI. 

Secular  Hymn, 

II. 

633.  The  metres  of  the  following  poets  must  be  briefly  men- 
tioned : 

L Catullus  uses  chiefly  (1)  the  Elegiac  Distich  (615) ; (2)  Phalaecian 


METRES  OF  MARTIAL,  PLAUTUS,  ETC 


369 


verse  (629,  I.) ; (3)  Choliambus  or  Scazon  (622,  4) ; (4)  lambic  Trimeter 
(622) ; (5)  Priapean  (629,  .II.). 

II.  Martial  uses  largely  the  Choliambus  or  Scazon  and  the  Phalaecian 
verse. 

Note  1. — Martial  also  uses  lambic  and  Dactylic  measures. 

Note  2.— Seneca  in  his  choral  odes  imitates  the  lyric  metres  of  Horace.  He  uses 
Sapphics  very  freely,  and  often  combines  them  into  systems  closing  with  the  Adonic. 

Note  3.— Seneca  also  uses  Anapaestic  ^ verse  with  Spondees  and  Dactyls  as  equiv- 
alents. This  consists  of  one  or  more  dipodies : 

Venient  annis  | saecula  seris. 

III.  Plautus  and  Terence  use  chiefly  various  lambic  and  Trochaic  me- 
tres, but  they  also  use — 

1.  Bacchiac ^ Metres,  generally  Tetrameter  or  Dimeter: 

Multas'  res  | simi'tu  in  | meo'  cor-  | de  vor'so.  Plant. 

At  ta'men  ubl  | fides'  ? si  | roges',  nil  | pendent'  hie.  Ter. 

Note.— The  Molossus, , may  take  the  place  of  the  Bacchius,  as  in  multas  res, 

and  the  long  syllables  may  be  resolved,  as  in  at  tamen  ubl. 

2,  Cretic  ^ Metres,  generally  Tetrameter  or  Dimeter : 

Nam'  doli  | non'  doli  | sunt',  nisi  as-  | tu'  colas.  Plant, 

Ut'  malis  | gau'deant  1 at'que  ex  in-  [ com'modis.  Ter. 

Note  1.— Plautus  also  uses  Anapaestic  metres,  especially  Dimeters  : 

Quod  ago'  subit,  ad-  1 secue'  sequitur.  Plant. 

This  measure  admits  Dactyls  and  Spondees,  rarely  Proceleusmatics, 

Note  2. — For  Trochaic  and  lamMc  Metres  in  Comed^y,  see  630,  note  2;  633,  3. 

Note  3.— For  Special  Peculiarities  in  the  prosody  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  see 
576,  notes  2 and  3;  578,  note  2;  580,  notes  2,  3,  and  4.2 

Note  4. — On  the  free  use  of  Synaeresis  in  Comedy,  see  608,  III.,  note  3. 


1 See  603,  note  1 ; 507,  note  1. 

2 For  a full  account  of  the  metres  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  see  editions  of  those  poets,* 
as  the  edition  of  Plautus  by  Kitschl,  of  a part  of  Plautus  by  Harrington,  the  edition  of 
Terence  by  Wagner,  and  the  edition  by  Crowell;  also  Spengel,  ‘Plautus  : Kritik,  Pro- 
sodie,  Metrik.’ 


25 


370 


APPENDIX. 


APPEI^DIX. 


I.  Figures  of  Speech. 

634.  A Figure  is  a deviation  from  the  ordinary  form^  construction^  at 
ngnification  of  words. 

Note. — Deviations  from  the  ordinary  forms  are  called  Figures  of  Etymology  ; from 
the  ordinary  constructions,  Figures  of  Syntam;  and  from  the  ordinary  significations, 
Figures  of  Rhetoric. 

635.  The  principal  Figures  of  Etymology  are — 

1.  Aphaeresis,  the  taking  of  one  or  more  letters  from  the  beginning  ol  a word : ''st 
for  est. 

2.  Syncope,  the  taking  of  one  or  more  letters  from  the  middle  of  a word  : dixe  for 
dixisse. 

8.  Apocope,  the  taking  of  one  or  more  letters  from  the  end  of  a word  : tun'  for  tune. 

4.  Epenthesis,  the  insertion  of  one  or  more  letters  in  a word : Alcumena  for  Ale 
mena.  dlitumn  for  dlitum. 

5.  Metathesis,  the  transposition  of  letters : pistris  for  pristis. 

6.  See  also  Figures  op  Prosody,  608. 

636.  The  principal  Figures  of  Syntax  are — 

I.  Ellipsis,  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  of  a sentence : • 

Habitabat  ad  Jovis  {sc.  templum).^  Tie  dwelt  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter.  Liv. 
Hic  illius  arma  {fuerunt).^  hic  currus  fuit,  here  were  her  arms^  here  her  chariot. 
Verg. 

1.  Asyndeton  is  an  ellipsis  of  a conjunction : ^ 

Veni,  vidi,  vicl,  I came.,  I saw  I conquered.  Suet.  See  also  554,  I.,  6,  with  note  1. 

2.  For  the  Ellipsis  of  facio.,  died.,  drd.,  see  368, 3,  note  1 ; 533,  I.,  note ; 569,  II.,  3. 

8.  For  Aposiopesis  or  Reticentia,  see  637,  XI.,  3. 

II.  Brachylogy,  a concise  and  abridged  form  of  expression : 

Nostri  Graece  neseiunt  nec  Graeci  Latine, ^ our  people  do  not  Icnow  G-reek 
and  the  Greeks  (do)  not  (know)  Latin.  Cic.  Natura  hominis  beluis  antece- 
dit,^ the  nature  of  man  surpasses  (that  of)  the  Irutes.  Cic. 

1.  Zeugma  employs  a word  in  two  or  more  connections,  though  strictly 
applicable  only  in  one : 

Pacem  an  bellum  gerens, ^ whether  at  peace  or  waging  war.  Sail.  Duces 
pictasque  exure  carinas,  slay  the  leaders  and  hum  the  painted  ships.  V erg. 

1 Asyndeton  is  sometimes  distinguished  according  to  its  use,  as  Adversative.,  Ex* 
plicative.,  Enumerative,  etc. ; see  Nagelsbach,  ‘ Stilistik,’  § 200. 

2 Here  nesoiunt  suggests  sciunt,  and  heluls  in  the  second  example  is  equivalent  to 
hlludrum  ndturae. 

3 Gerens,  applicable  only  to  helium,  is  here  used  also  of  pdeerru 


FIGURES  OF  SYNTAX. 


371 


2.  Syllepsis  is  the  use  of  an  adjective  with  two  or  more  nouns,  or  of  a verb 
with  two  or  more  subjects : 

Pater  et  mater  mortui  sunt,  father  and  mother  are  dead  (439).  Ter.  Tu 
et  Tullia  valetis,  you  and  Tullia  are  well.  Cic. 

III.  Pleonasm  is  a full,  redundant,  or  emphatic  form  of  expression : ^ 

Erant  itinera  duo,  quibus  itineribus  exire  possent,  there  were  two  ways  hy 
which  ways  they  might  depart,  Caes.  Eurusque  Notusque  ruunt,  both  Eurus 
2nd  Notus  rush  forth.  V erg. 

1.  Polysyndeton  is  a pleonasm  in  the  use  of  conjunctions,  as  in  the  last  example. 

2.  Hendiadys  is  the  use  of  two  nouns  with  a conjunction,  instead  of  a noun  with  an 
adjective  or  genitive : 

Armis  virisque  for  viris  armatis,  with  armed  men.  Tac. 

3.  Anaphora  is  the  repetition  of  a word  at  the  beginning  of  successive  clauses: 

Me  cuncta  Italia,  me  universa  civitas  consulem  declaravit,  me  all  Italy^  me  the 
whole  state  declared  consul.  Cic. 

4.  Epiphora  is  the  repetition  of  a word  at  the  end  of  successive  clauses : 

Laelius  navus  erat,  doctus  erat,  Laelius  was  diUgent^  was  learned.  Cic. 

5.  Epizettxis  is  the  emphatic  repetition  of  a word  : 

Fuit,  fuit  quondam  in  hac  re  publica  virtus,  there  was.^  there  was  formerly  rirtue 
in  this  republic.  Cic. 

6.  Monosyllabic  prepositions  are  often  repeated  before  successive  nouns,  regularly  so 
with  et — et: 

Et  in  bellicis  et  in  civilibus  officiis,  both  in  military  and  in  civil  offices.  Cic. 

Note.— Other  prepositions  are  sometimes  repeated. 

7.  A demonstrative  pronoun  or  adverb — id^  hbc^  illud,  sic,  ita — is  often  used  some- 
what redundantly  to  represent  a subsequent  clause.  So  also  quid,  in  quid  censes  with 
a clause : 

Illud  te  bro  ut  diligens  sis,  I ask  you  (that  thing)  to  be  (that  you  be)  diligent.  Cic. 

8.  Pronouns  are  often  redundant  with  quide/m  ; see  450,  4,  note  2. 

9.  Pleonasm  often  occurs  with  licet : 

Ut  liceat  permittitur  = licet,  it  is  lawful  (is  permitted  that  it  is,  etc.).  Cic. 

10.  Circumlocutions  with  res,  genus,  modus,  and  ratio  are  common. 

vf  lY.  Enallage  is  the  substitution  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another,  oi 
of  One  grammatical  form  for  another : 

Populus  late  rex  (for  regnans^,  a people  of  extensive  sway  (ruling  extensive- 
ly). Yerg.  Serus  {sero)  in  caelum  redeas,  may  you  return  late  to  heaven.  Hor. 
Ylna  cadis  {vlnis  cades)  onerare,  to  fill  the  flasks  with  wine.  Yerg.  Cursus 
justi  (justus)  amnis,  the  regular  course  of  the  river.  Liv. 

1.  Antimeria  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another,  as  in  the  first  two  examples. 

2.  Hypallage  is  the  use  of  one  case  for  another,  as  in  the  last  two  examples. 

8.  Prolepsis  or  Anticipation  is  the  application  of  an  epithet  in  anticipation  of  the 
Action  of  the  verb  : 

Sefita  latentia  condunt,  they  conceal  their  hidden  shields.  Yerg.  See  also  440,  2. 

4.  Synesis  is  a construction  according  to  sense,  without  regard  to  grammatical  forms, 
For  examples,  see  438,  6;  445,  5;  461. 

* Pleonasm,  a full  or  emphatic  expression,  differs  widely  from  Tautology,  which  if 
a needless  repetition  of  the  same  meaning  in  different  words. 


m 


APPENDIX. 


5.  Attraction  imites  in  construction  words  not  united  in  sense : 

Animal  quern  (for  quod)  vocamus  hominem,  the  animal  which  we  call  man.  Cic 
See  also  445,  4,  8,  and  9. 

6.  Anacoluthon  is  a want  of  harmony  in  the  construction  of  the  different  parts  of  a 
sentence : 

Si,  ut  dicunt,  omnes  Graios  esse  {Grail  sunt).,  if.,  as  they  say.,  all  are  Greeks.  Cic. 

V.  Hyperbaton  is  a transposition  of  words  or  clauses : 

Praeter  arma  nihil  erat  super  {supererat).,  nothing  remained.,  except  theii 
arms.  Nep.  Valet  atque  vivit  {vivit  atque  valet).,  he  is  alive  and  well.  Ter, 
Subeunt  luco,  fluviumque  relinquunt,  they  enter  the  grove  and  leave  the  river. 
Verg. 

1.  Anastrophe  is  the  transposition  of  words  only,  as  in  the  first  example. 

2.  Hysteron  Proteron  is  a transposition  of  clauses,  as  in  the  last  example. 

3.  Tmesis  is  the  separation  of  the  parts  of  a compound  word  : 

Nec  prius  respexi  quam  venimus,  nor  did  I look  hack  before  (sooner  than)  we  ar- 
rived. Verg. 

4.  Chiasmus  is  an  inverted  arrangement  of  words  in  contrasted  groups;  see  56». 

637.  Figures  of  Khetoric  comprise  several  varieties.  The  following 
are  the  most  important : ^ 

I.  A Simile  is  a direct  comparison : 

Manus  efiTugit  imago  par  levibus  ventis  volucrique  simillima  somno,  the 
image.,  like  the  swift  winds.,  and  very  like  a fleeting  dream.,  escaped  my  hands. 
Verg. 

II.  Metaphor  is  an  implied  comparison,  and  assigns  to  one  object  the 
appropriate  name,  epithet,  or  action  of  another : 

Eei  publicae  vulnus  (for  damnum).,  the  wound  of  the  republic.  Cic.  Nau- 
fragium fortunae,  the  wreck  of  fortune.  Cic.  Aures  veritati  clausae  sunt,  'his 
ears  are  closed  against  the  truth.  Cic. 

1.  Allegory  is  an  extended  metaphor,  or  a series  of  metaphors.  For  an 
example,  see  Horace,  I.,  Ode  14 : O navis  . . . occupa  portum,  etc.^ 

III.  Metonymy  is  the  use  of  one  name  for  another  naturally  suggested 
by  it : 

Aequo  Marte  (for  proelio)  pugnatum  est,  they  fought  in  an  equal  contest. 
Liv.  {ignis),  the  fire  rages.  Verg.  Proximus  ardet  Ucalegon 

(domus  Ucalegontis).,  Ucalegon  hums  next.  Verg. 

Note. — By  this  figure  the  cause  is  often  put  for  the  effect,  and  the  effect  for  the  cause . 
the  property  for  the  possessor,  the  place  or  age  for  the  people,  the  sign  for  the  thing  sig- 
nified, the  material  for  the  manufactured  article,  etc. : Mars  for  bellum.,  Vulcanus  for 
ignis.,  Bacchus  for  vlnum.,  nobilitas  for  nobiles,  Graecia  for  Graeci,  laurea  for  Vic- 
toria, argentum  for  vdsa  argentea,  etc. 

1 On  Figurative  Language,  see  the  eighth  and  ninth  books  of  Quintilian,  ‘ De  Insti- 
tutione  Oratoria,’  and  the  fourth  book  of  ‘ Auctor  ad  Herennium  ’ in  Cicero’s  works. 

2 In  this  beautiful  allegory  the  poet  represents  the  vessel  of  state  as  having  been 
well-nigh  wrecked  in  the  storms  of  the  civil  war,  but  as  now  approaching  the  haven  of 
Deace. 


FIGURES  OF  RHETORIC. 


373 


1.  Antonomasia  designates  a person  by  some  title  or  office,  as  eversor 
Karthdginis  for  Scvpid^  Romanae  'eloquentiae  princeps  for  Cicerb. 

IV.  Synecdoche  is  the  use  of  a part  for  the  whole,  or  of  the  whole  for 
a part;  of  the  special  for  the  general,  or  of  the  general  for  the  special: 

Statio  male  fida  carinis  {navibus),  a station  unsafe  for  ships.  Verg. 

V.  Irony  is  the  use  of  a word  for  its  opposite : 

Legatos  bonus  (for  rnalus)  imperator  vester  non  admisit,  your  good  com 
nander  did  not  admit  the  ambassadors.  Liv.  See  also  507,  3,  note  1. 

Metaphor,  metowymy,  synecdoche,  and  irony  are  often  called  Tropes. 

VI.  Climax  {ladder)  is  a steady  ascent  or  advance  in  interest : 

Africano  industria  virtutem,  virtus  gloriam,  gloria  aemulas  comparavit, 

industry  procured  virtue  for  Africanus,  virtue  glory,  glory  rivals.  Cic. 

VII.  Hyperbole  is  an  exaggeration  : 

Ventis  et  fulminis  ocior  alis,  swifter  than  the  winds  and  the  wings  of  ike 
lightning.  Verg. 

^ VIII.  Litotes  denies  something  instead  of  affirming  the  opposite : 

Non  opus  est  = perniciosum  est,  it  is  not  necessary.  Cic. 

IX.  Personification  or  Prosopopeia  represents  inanimate  objects  as 
living  beings : 

Cujus  latus  ille  mucro  petebat  ? whose  side  did  that  weapon  seek  ? Cic.^ 

X.  Apostrophe  is  an  address  to  inanimate  objects  or  to  absent  persons : 

Vos,  Albani  tumuli,  vos  imploro,  1 implore  you,  ye  Alban  hills.  Cic. 

XI.  The  following  figures  deserve  brief  mention : 

1.  Alliteration,  a repetition  of  the  same  letter  at  the  beginning  of 
successive  words : 

force  was  conquered  by  force.  Cic.  Fortissimi  viri  virtus, 
the  virtue  of  a most  brave  man.  Cic. 

2.  Apophasis  or  Paraleipsis,  a pretended  omission : ^ 

Non  dico  te  pecunias  accepisse  ; rapinas  tuas  omnes  omitto,  I do  not  state 
that  you  accepted  money  ; I omit  all  your  acts  of  rapine.  Cic. 

3.  Aposiopesis  or  Reticentia,  an  ellipsis  which  for  rhetorical  effect 
' leaves  the  sentence  unfinished : 

QuOs  ego — sed  motos  praestat  componere  fluctus,  whom  I— but  it  is  better 
to  calm  the  troubled  waves.  Verg. 

4.  Euphemism,  the  use  of  mild  or  agreeable  language  on  unpleasant 
subjects : 

Si  quid  mihi  humanitus  accidisset,  if  anything  common  to  the  lot  of  man 
Ikpuld  befall  me — i.  e.,  if  1 should  die.  Cic. 


1 See  also  First  Oration  against  Catiline,  VII.  ; Quae  tecum  . . . tacita  loquitur,  etc. 

2 Sometimes  called  ocev^dtio. 


374 


APPENDIX, 


6.  Onomatopoeia,  the  use  of  a word  in  imitation  of  a special  sound : 

Bovea  mugiunt,  the  cattle  loiv.  Liv.  Murmurat  unda,  the  warn  murmurs. 
Verg. 

6.  Oxymoron,  an  apparent  contradiction  • 

Absentes  adsunt  et  egentes  abundant,  the  absent  are  present  and  the  needy 
have  an  abundance,  Cic. 

7.  Paronomasia  or  Agnomination,  a play  upon  words : 

Hunc  avium  dulcedo  ducit  ad  avium, i the  attraction  of  birds  leads  him  to 
the  pathless  wood.  Cic. 

IT.  Latin  Language  and  Literature. 

638.  The  Latin  derives  its  name  from  the  Latlnl  or  Latins,^  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Latium  in  Italy.  It  belongs  to  the  Indo-European  or  Aryan 
family,  which  embraces  seven  groups  of  tongues  known  as  the  Indian  or 
Sanskrit,^  the  Persian  or  Zend,^  the  G-reek,^  the  Italian,^  the  Celtic,^  the  Slavonic,^ 
and  the  Teutonic  or  Germanic.  The  Latin  is  the  leading  member  of  the 
Italian  group,  which  also  embraces  the  Umbrian  and  the  Oscan.  All  these  lan- 
guages have  one  common  system  of  inflection,  and  in  various  respects  strik- 
ingly resemble  each  other.  They  are  the  descendants  of  one  common  speech 
spoken  by  a single  race  of  men  untold  centuries  before  the  dawn  of  history. 

Note  1.— In  illustration  of  the  relationship  between  the  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
English,  compare  the  following  paradigms  of  declension  : ^ 


singular. 


Sanskrit. 

Greek. 

Latin. 

English. 

Stem. 

pad. 

7to5, 

ped. 

foot. 

Nom..^  I 
Voc. 

pad, 

7TOU9, 

pes, 

foot. 

Gen. 

padas. 

TToSog, 

pedis. 

of  a foot. 

Dot. 

pade. 

TToSt, 

pedi, 

to  a foot. 

Acc. 

padam. 

TToSa,^ 

pedera. 

foot. 

Abl. 

padas, 

pede,4 

from  a foot. 

Ins. 

pada, 

padi, 

with  a foot. 

Log. 

Nom.., 

Yog 

PLURAL. 

in  a foot. 

j-  padas, 

TTofie?, 

pedes. 

feet. 

Gen. 

padam. 

TToSwV, 

pedum, 

of  feet. 

Dat. 

padbhyas. 

7ro(n', 

TToSay, 

pedibus. 

to  feet. 

Acc. 

padas, 

pedes, 

feet. 

Abl. 

padbhyas. 

pedibus, 

from  feet. 

Ins. 

padbhis, 

with  feet. 

Log. 

patsu, 

in  feet. 

^ The  pun,  lost  in  English,  is  in  the  use  of  drium.,  a remote  or  pathless  place,  with 
OA)ium,  of  birds. 

2 See  also  p.  Tl,  foot-note  2 ; p.  83,  foot-note  3. 

3 The  Ablative.,  the  Instrumental  and  the  Locative  are  lost  in  Greek,  but  their 
places  are  supplied  by  the  Genitive  and  the  Dative. 

4 The  final  consonant,  probably  of  the  original  Ablative  ending  is  changed  to  s in 
padas  and  dropped  in  pede.  The  Instrumental  and  the  Locative  are  lost  in  Latin 
but  their  places  are  supplied  by  the  Ablative. 


LAfl}^  LANGlIAGk 


375 


Note  2.— In  these  paradigms  observe  that  the  initial  p in  pad.  ttoS,  ped.,  becomes  f 
In  foot.,  and  that  the  final  d becomes  t.  This  change  is  in  accordance  with  Grimm’s 
hdw  of  the  Rotation  of  Mutes  in  the  Germanic  languages.  This  law  is  as  follows  : 

The  Primitive  Mutes,  which  generally  remain  unchanged  in  Sanskrit,  Greek,  and 
Latin,  are  changed  in  passing  into  the  Germanic  languages,  to  which  the  English  belongs. 
Thus  the  Sonants,  gr,  in  passing  into  English,  become  Surds,  k;  the  Surds,  c,  A?, 
p,  become  Aspirates,  A,  wZi,  / (for  p^),  th ; the  Aspirates,  hh}  dh.}  gh^  become 
Sonants,  c?,  g?‘ 

Note  3. — The  relationship  between  the  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and  English  may  be 
abundantly  illustrated  by  comparing  the  forms  of  familiar  words  in  these  different  Ian- 
guages.3 

639.  The  earliest  specimens  of  Latin  whose  date  can  be  determined  are 
found  in  ancient  inscriptions,  and  belong  to  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, before  Christ  or  to  the  beginning  of  the  third.  Fragments,  however, 
of  laws,  hymns,  and  sacred  formulas,  doubtless  of  an  earlier  though  uncer- 
tain date,  have  been  preserved  in  Cato,  Livy,  Cicero,  and  other  Latin  writers.*^ 


1 Bh  generally  is  represented  in  Latin  by  b or  /;  dh  by  d or  f and  gh  by  g h,  or  /; 
see  Schleicher,  pp.  244-251. 

2 For  an  account  of  Grimm’s  Law,  with  its  applications,  see  Max  Muller,  ‘ Science 
of  Language,’  Second  Series,  Lecture  V.;  Papillon,  pp.  85-91. 

3 Compare  the  following : 


Sanskrit. 

Greek. 

Latin. 

English. 

dvau. 

duo. 

two. 

trayas. 

rpei?. 

tres. 

three. 

sat. 

sex. 

six. 

B*apta, 

eiTTa, 

septem. 

seven. 

daga. 

fie/ca. 

decem. 

ten. 

dvis. 

fit?, 

bis. 

twice. 

tris. 

rpt?. 

ter. 

thrice. 

mata, 

^lriTY|p, 

mater. 

mother. 

pita. 

naTrjp., 

pater, 

father. 

naus. 

navis. 

navy. 

vak, 

vox, 

voice. 

4  Such  are  the  ancient  forms  of  prayer  found  in  Cato  and  other  writers,  the  fragments 
of  Salian  hymns,  of  the  formulas  of  the  Fetial  priests,  and  of  ancient  laws,  especially  of 
the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables.  The  following  inscription  on  the  tomb  of  the  Scipios 
shows  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  early  Latin  : 

HONO  OINO  . PLOIRVME  . CONSENTIONT  . R 
DVONORO  . OPTVMO  . FVISE  . VIRO 
LVCIOM  . SCIPIONE  . FILIOS  . BARBATI 
CONSOL  . CENSOR  . AIDILI8  . HIC  . FVET  . A 
HEC  . CEPIT  . CORSICA  . ALERIAQVE  . VRBE 
DEDET  . TEMPESTATEBUS  . AIDE  . MERETO 

In  ordinary  Latin : 

Hunc  unum  plurimi  consentiunt  B.dmdl 
bonorum  optimum  fuisse  virum  mrdrum^ 

Lucium  Scipionem.  Filius  Barbati 

consul,  censor,  aedilis  hic  fuit  o.pud  vds.  \ 

Hic  cepit  Corsicam  Aleriamque  urhem  pugnando  ; 
dedit  tempestatibus  aedem  merito  votam. 

See  Wordsworth,  ‘Early  Latin,’  Part  II.;  F.  D.  Allen,  ‘Early  Latin’;  Loby,  I.,  p.  418. 


376 


APPENDIX, 


640.  The  history  of  Roman  literature  begins  with  Livius  Andronicus^ 
a writer  of  piays,  and  the  earliest  Roman  author  known  to  us.  It  em. 
braces  about  eight  centuries,  from  250  b.  c.  to  550  a.  d.,  and  has  been 
divided  by  Dr.  Freund  into  three  principal  periods.  These  periods,  with 
their  principal  authors,  are  as  follows : 

I.  The  Ante-Classical  Period,  from  260  to  81  b.  c. : 

Ennius,  Plautus,  Terence, 

II.  The  Classical  Period,  embracing — 

1.  The  Golden  Age^  from  81  b.  c.  to  14  a.  d.  : 

Cicero,  Nepos,  Horace, 

Caesar,  Divy,  Ovid, 

Sallust,  Vergil,  Catullus, 

2.  The  Silver  Age^  from  14  to  180  a.  d.  : 

Phaedrus,  The  Plinies,  Quintilian, 

V elleius,  Tacitus,  Suetonius, 

The  Senecas,  Curtius,  Juvenal, 

III.  The  Post-Classical  Period,  embracing — 

1.  The  Brazen  Age^  from  180  to  476  a.  d. 

Justin,  Eutropius,  Lactantius, 

Victor,  Macrobius,  Ausonius, 

2.  The  Iron  Age^  from  476  to  650  a.  d.  : 

Boethius,  Cassiodorua,  Justinian, 

III.  The  Roman  Calendar. 

641.  The  Julian  Calendar  of  the  Romans  is  the  basis  of  our  own,  and 
is  identical  with  it  in  the  number  of  months  in  the  year  and  in  the  num- 
ber of  days  in  the  months. 

642.  Peculiarities. — ^The  Roman  calendar  has  the  following  pecu- 
liarities : 

I.  The  days  were  not  numbered  from  the  beginning  of  the  month,  as  with 
us,  but  from  three  different  points  in  the  month ; 

1.  The  Calends,  the  first  of  each  month. 

2.  The  Nones,  the  fifth — but  the  seventh  in  March,  May,  July,  and 
October. 

3.  The  Ides,  the  thirteenth — but  the  fifteenth  in  March,  May,  July,  and 
October. 

II.  From  these  three  points  the  days  were  numbered,  not  forward,  but 
backward. 

Note.— Hence,  after  the  Ides  of  each  month,  the  days  were  numbered  from  the 
Calends  of  the  following  month. 

III.  In  numbering  backward  from  each  of  these  points,  the  day  before 


Lucretius. 


Tibullus, 

Propertius. 


Persius, 

Lucan, 

Martial. 


Claudian, 

Terentian. 


Priscian. 


ROMAN  CALENDAR, 


377 


each,  was  denoted  by  prldie  Kalendds,^  Nonds^  etc.  ; the  second  before  each  by 
die  tertio  (not  secundo)  ante  Kalendds,^  etc.;  the  third,  by  die  quarto,^  etc.;  and 
so  on  through  the  month. 

1.  This  peculiarity  in  the  use  of  the  numerals,  designating  the  second  day  before  the 
Calends,  etc.,  as  the  third,,  and  the  third  as  the  fourth,,  etc.,  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
Calends,  etc.,  were  themselves  counted  as  the  first.  Thus  prldie  Kalendds  becomes 
the  second  before  the  Calends,  die  tertio  ante  Kalendds,,  the  third,  etc. 

2.  In  dates  the  name  of  the  month  is  added  in  the  form  of  an  adjective  in  agreement 
with  Kalendds,,  Ncnds,,  etc.,  as,  die  quarto  ante  Nonas  Jdnudrids,,  often  shortened  to 
quarto  ante  Nonas  Jan,,,  or  IV,  ante  Nonas  Jdn,,  or  without  ante,,  as,  IV,  Nonas  Jdn„, 
the  second  of  January. 

8.  Ante  diem  is  common,  instead  of  die — ante,,  as,  ante  diem  qudrtwm  Nonas  Jdn, 
for  die  quarto  ante  Ndnds  Jdn, 

4.  The  expressions  ante  diem  Kal,,,  etc.,  prldie  Kal,,,  etc.,  are  often  used  as  inde- 
clinable nouns  with  a preposition,  as,  ex  ante  diem  V,  Idus  Oct,,,  from  the  11th  of  Oct 
Lie,  Ad  prldie  Nonas  Maids,,  till  the  6th  of  May.  Cic, 

643.  Calendar  for  the  Year. 


Days  of 
the 

Month. 

March,  May,  July, 
October. 

January,  August, 
December. 

April,  June, 
September,  November. 

February. 

1 

K ALENDIS.  1 

KalendIb. 

K ALENDIS. 

Kalendis. 

2 

VI.  Nonas.1 

IV.  Nonas. 

IV.  Nonas. 

IV.  Nonas. 

8 

V. 

III. 

III. 

III. 

4 

IV. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

\ 5 

III. 

Nonis. 

NonIs. 

NonIs. 

6 

Pridie  Nonas. 

VIII.  Idus. 

VIII.  Idiis. 

VIII.  Idus. 

T 

Nonis. 

VII. 

VII. 

YIL 

8 

VIII.  Idus. 

VI. 

VI. 

VI. 

9 

VII. 

V. 

V. 

V. 

10 

VI. 

IV. 

IV.  “ 

IV. 

11 

V. 

III. 

III.  _ “ 

III.^  _ “ 

12 

IV. 

PridiS  Idus. 

Pridie  Idus. 

Pridie  Idus. 

13 

III.  _ “ 

Idibtjs. 

Idibtts. 

Idibtjs. 

14 

Pridie  Idus. 

XIX.  Kalend.2 

XVIII.  Kalend.2 

XVI.  Kalend.2 

15 

Idibus. 

XVIII.  “ 

XVII. 

XV. 

16 

XVII.  Kalend.2 

XVII. 

XVI. 

XIV. 

17 

XVI. 

XVI. 

XV. 

XIII. 

18 

XV. 

XV. 

XIV. 

XII.  “ 

19 

XIV. 

XIV. 

XIII. 

XL 

20 

XIII. 

XIII. 

XII. 

X. 

21 

XII. 

XII. 

XI. 

IX.  “ 

22 

XI. 

XI. 

X. 

VIII. 

28 

X. 

X. 

IX. 

VII. 

24 

IX. 

IX. 

VIII. 

VI. 

25 

VIII. 

VIII. 

VII. 

V.  (VI.)  3 “ 

26 

VII. 

VII. 

VI. 

IV.  (V.)  “ 

27 

VI. 

V. 

III.  (IV.)  “ 

28 

V. 

V. 

IV. 

Prid.  KalJIII.Kal.) 

29 

IV. 

IV. 

III. 

(Prid.  Kal.) 

30 

31 

III.  « 

PridiS  Kalend. 

III. 

Pridie  Kalend. 

Pridie  Kalend. 

1 To  the  Calends,  Nones,  etc,,  the  name  of  the  month  must  of  course  be  added.  Be- 
fore Nonas,  Idus,  etc.,  ante  is  sometimes  used  and  sometimes  omitted  (643,  III.,  2). 

2 The  Calends  of  the  following  month  are  of  course  meant;  the  16th  of  March,  foi 
instance,  is  X VII,  Kalendds  Apriles, 

8 The  inclosed  forms  apply  to  leap-year. 


378 


APPENbtZ 


644.  English  and  Latin  Dates. — The  table  (643)  will  furnish 
learner  with  the  English  expression  for  any  Latin  date,  or  the  Latin  ex* 
pression  for  any  English  date ; but  it  may  be  convenient  also  to  have  the 
following  rule : 

I.  If  the  day  is  numbered  from  the  Nones  or  Ides,  subtract  the  number 
diminished  by  one  from  the  number  of  the  day  on  which  the  Nones  or  Ides 
fall: 

VIII.  ante  Idtis  Jan.  = 13  — (8  — 1)  = 13  — 7 = 6th  of  January. 

II.  If  the  day  is  numbered  from  the  Calends  of  the  following  month,  sub- 
tract the  number  diminished  by  two  from  the  number  of  days  in  the  current 
month  : 

XVIII.  ante  Kal.  Feb.  = 31  — (18  — 2)  = 31  — 16  = 15th  of  January. 

Note. — In  leap-year  the  24th  and  the  25th  February  are  both  called  the  sixth  before 
the  Calends  of  March,  VI.  Kal.  Mart.  The  days  before  the  24th  are  numbered  as  il 
the  month  contained  only  28  days,  but  the  days  after  the  25th  are  numbered  regularly 
for  a month  of  29  days  : V,  IV,  III.  Kal.  Mart..,  and  pj-ldie  Kal.  Mart. 

645.  The  Eoman  day,  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  and  the  night,  from 
sunset  to  sunrise,  were  each  divided  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  into  twelve 
hours. 

1.  The  night  was  also  divided  into  four  watches  of  three  Eoman  hours 
each. 

2.  The  hour,  being  uniformly  1/12  of  the  day  or  of  the  night,  of  course  varied 
in  length  with  the  length  of  the  day  or  night  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

lY.  Roman  Money,  Weights,  and  Measures. 

646.  The  principal  Roman  coins'were  the  «5,  of  copper;  the  sestertius., 
quinarius.,  denarius,  of  silver ; and  the  aureus,  of  gold.  Their  value  in  the 
classical  period  may  be  approximately  given  as  follows : 

As 1 to  2 cents.. 

Sestertius 5 “ 

Quinarius 10  “ 

Denarius 20  “ 

Aureus  = 25  denarii $5.00 

1.  The  as,  the  unit  of  the  Eoman  currency,  contained  originally  a pound 
of  copper,  but  it  was  diminished  from  time  to  time  till  at  last  it  contained 
only  Y24  of  a pound. 

Note. — An  as,  whatever  its  weight,  was  divided  into  twelve  unciae. 

2.  The  sestertius  contained  originally  21^  asses,  the  quinarius  5,  and  the 
ddndrius  10  ; but  as  the  as  depreciated  in  value,  the  number  of  asses  in  these 
coins  was  increased. 

3.  The  as  is  also  used  as  a general  unit  of  measure.  Thus— 

1)  In  Weight,  the  as  is  a pound,  and  the  uncia  an  ounce. 

2)  In  Measure,  the  as  is  a foot  or  a jffgerum  (648,  IV.  and  V.),  and  the 
uncia  is  V12  of  a foot  or  of  a jugerum. 

3)  In  Interest,  the  as  is  the  unit  of  interest — i.  e.,  1 per  cent,  a month 


MONKY,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MEASURES. 


379 


or  12  per  cent,  a year;  the  uncia  is  V12  per  cent,  a month,  or  1 per  cent,  a 
year ; and  the  semis  is  «/12  per  cent,  a month,  or  6 per  cent,  a year,  etc. 

4)  In  Inheritance,  the  as  is  the  whole  estate,  and  the  uncia  1/12  of  it : li^es 
ex  asse,  heir  of  the  whole  estate  ; h^es  ex  dodrante,  heir  of  8/12* 

647.  Computation  of  Money. — In  all  sums  of  money  the  common  unit 
of  computation  was  the  sestertius,  also  called  nummus  ; but  four  special 
points  deserve  notice : 

I.  In  all  sums  of  money,  the  units,  tens,  and  hundreds  are  denoted  by 
sestertii  with  the  proper  cardinals : 

Quinque  sestertii,  5 sesterces ; viginti  sestertii,  20  sesterces ; ducenti  ses- 
tertii, 200  sesterces. 

II.  One  thousand  sesterces  are  denoted  by  mllle  sestertii,  or  mllle  sester- 
tium. 

III.  In  sums  less  than  1,000,000  sesterces,  the  thousands  are  denoted  either 
(1)  by  mllia  sestertium  (gen.  piur.),  or  (2)  by  sestertia: 

Duo  milia  sestertium,  or  duo  sestertia,  2,000  sesterces  ; quinque  milia  ses- 
tertium, or  quinque  sestertia,  5,000  sesterces. 

Note.— With  sestertia  the  distributives  are  generally  used,  as,  Mna  sHtertia. 

IV.  In  sums  containing  one  or  more  millions  of  sesterces,  sMertium  with 
the  value  of  100,000  sesterces  is  used  with  the  proper  numeral  adverb,  decies, 
vicies,  etc.  Thus — 

Decies  sestertium,  1,000,000  (10  x 100,000)  sesterces ; vicies  sestertium, 

2.000. 000  (20  X 100,000)  sesterces. 

1.  Sestertium. — In  the  examples  under  lY.,  sestertium  is  treated  as  a neuter  noun 
in  the  singular,  though  originally  it  was  probably  the  genitive  plural  of  sestertius,  and  the 
full  expression  for  1,000,000  sesterces  was  Bedes  cemtena  mllia  sestertium.  Centena 
mllia  was  afterward  generally  omitted,  and  finally  sestertium  lost  its  force  as  a genitive 
plural,  and  became  a neuter  noun  in  the  singular,  capable  of  declension. 

2.  Sometimes  sestertium  is  omitted,  leaving  only  the  numeral  adverb : as,  decies., 

1.000. 000  sesterces. 

3.  The  sign  HS  is  often  used  for  sestertii,  and  sometimes  for  sestertia,  or  sestertium : 

Decem  HS  = 10  sesterces  (HS  = sestertii).  Dena  HS  = 10,000  sesterces  (HS  = ses- 
tertia). Decies  HS  = 1,000,000  sesterces  (HS  = sestertium). 

648.  Weights  and  Measures.— The  following  weights  and  measures 
deserve  mention : 

I.  The  Inbra,  also  called  As  or  Rondo,  equal  to  about  11 ounces  avoir- 
dupois, is  the  basis  of  Eoman  weights. 

I.  The  Libra,  like  the  as  in  money,  is  divided  into  12  parts. 

II.  The  Modius,  equal  to  about  a peck,  is  the  basis  of  dry  measure. 

III.  The  Amphora,  containing  a Eoman  cubic  foot,  equivalent  to  about 
seven  gallons,  is  a convenient  basis  of  liquid  measure. 

IV.  The  Eoman  Res  or  Foot,  equivalent  to  about  11.6  inches,  is  the  basis 
of  long  measure. 

Note. — Cubitus  is  equivalent  to  1>^  Eoman  feet,  passus  to  5,  and  stadium  to  625. 


380 


APPENDIX. 


V.  The  Jugeru7n^  containing  28,800  Roman  square  feet,  equivalent  to 
about  six  tenths  of  an  acre,  is  the  basis  of  square  measure. 


Y.  Roman  Names. 


649.  A Roman  citizen  usually  had  three  names.  The  first,  ov  prae^ 
nomen,  designated  the  individual ; the  second,  or  nomen^  the  gens  or  tribe  ; 
and  the  third,  or  cognomen,  the  family.  Thus,  Publius  Cornelius  Sclpib 
was  Publius  of  the  Sclpib  family  of  the  Cornelian  gens,  and  Gdius  Julius 
Caesar  was  Gdius  of  the  Caesar  family  of  the  Julian  gens. 


1.  The  praenomen 

A.  = Aulus. 

Ap.  = Appius. 

C.  = Gaius. 

On.  = Gnaeus. 

D.  = Decimus. 

L.  = Lucius. 


was  often  abbreviated : 

M.  = Marcus. 

M’.  = Manius. 

Mam.  = Mamercus. 

N.  = Numerius. 

P.  = Publius. 

Q.  (Qu.)  = Quintus. 


S.  (Sex.)  = Sextus. 
Ser.  = Servius. 

Sp.  = Spurius. 

T.  = Titus. 

Ti.  (Tib.)  = Tiberius. 


2.  Sometimes  an  agnomen  or  surname  was  added.  Thus  Sclpib  received 
the  surname  Africanus  from  his  victories  in  Africa;  Publius  Corndms  Sclpib 
Africanus. 

3.  An  adopted  son  took  (1)  the  full  name  of  his  adoptive  father,  and  (2) 
an  agnomen  in  anus  formed  from  the  name  of  his  own  gens.  Thus  Octavius 
when  adopted  by  Caesar  became  Gdius  Julius  Caesar  Octavianus.  After- 
ward the  title  of  Augustus  was  conferred  upon  him,  making  his  full  name 
Gdius  Julius  Caesar  Octdvidnus  Augustus. 

4.  Women  v/ere  generally  known  by  the  name  of  their  gens.  Thus  the 
daughter  of  Julius  Caesar  was  simply  Julia  ; of  Tullius  Cicero,  Tullia  ; of 
Cornelius  ScipiO,  Cornelia.  Three  daughters  in  any  family  of  the  Cornelian 
gens  would  be  known  as  Cornelia.,  Cornelia  Secunda  or  Minor,  and  Cornelia 
Tertia. 


650.  Various  abbreviations  occur  in  classical  authors: 
F.  C.  - faciendum  cu- 


A.  D,  = ante  diem. 

Aed.  = aedilis. 

A.  U.  C.  = anno  urbis 
conditae. 

Cos.  = consul. 

Coss.  — consules. 

D.  = divus. 

D.  D.  = dono  dedit. 

Des.  = designatus. 

D.  M.  = diis  manibus. 
D.  S.  = de  suo. 

D.  S.  P.  P.  = de  sua 
pecunia  posuit. 

Eq.  Rom.  = eques  Ro- 
manus. 

F.  = filius. 


ravit. 

Id.  — Idus 

Imp.  = imperator. 

K.  (Kal.)  = Kalendae. 

Leg.  - legatus.* 

Non.  = Nonae. 

O.  M.  = optimus  max- 
imus. 

P.  C.  = patres  conscrip- 
ti. 

Pont.  Max.  = pontifex 
maximus. 

P.  R.  = populus  Ro- 
manus. 

I Pr.  = praetor. 


Praef.  = praefectus. 

Proc.  = proconsul. 

Q.  B.  F.  F.  Q.  S.  = quod 
bonum,  felix,  faus- 
tumque  sit. 

Quir.  = Quirites. 

Resp.  = res  publica. 

S.  = senatus. 

S.  C.  = senatus  consui 
tum. 

S.  D.  P.  = salutem  dicit 
plurimam. 

S.  P.  Q.  R.  = senatus 
populusque  Romanus. 

Tr.  Pl.  = tribunus  pl^ 
bis. 


APPENDIX. 


381 


YI.  Vowels  before  two  Consonants  or  a Double  Consonant. 

651.  On  the  natural  quantity^  of  vowels  before  two  consonants,  or  a 
double  consonant,  observe — 

I.  That  vowels  are  long  before  ns,  nf,  gn,  gm,  and  generally  before  j : 

conscius,  consensus,  consul,  inscribo,  insequor,  instans,  insula,  amans, 

monens,  regens,  audiens ; confero,  conficio,  infelix,  infensus,  infero  ; benig- 
nus, magnus,  regnum,  signum,  agmen,  segmentum,  hujus. 

II.  That  all  vowels  which  represent  diphthongs,  or  are  the  result  of 
contraction,  are  long : ^ 

existimo,  amasse,  audissem,  introrsum, 3 introrsus,  prorsus,  quorsum,  rur- 
sum, sursum,  malle,  mallem,  nolle,  nollem,  nullus,  ullus, 3 Mars,3  Martis. 

III.  That  the  long  vowels  of  Primitives  are  retained  in  Derivatives — 

1.  In  asco,  esc5,  and  isco  in  Inceptives: 

gelasco,  labasco,  acesco,  aresco,  floresco,  latesco,  patesco,  silesco,  viresco, 
edormisco,  obdormisco,  scisco,  conscisco. 

2.  In  large  classes  of  words  of  which  the  following  are  examples; 

cras-tinus,  duc-tilis,  fas-tus,  ne-fas-tus,  flos-culus,  jus-tus,  in-jus-tus,  jus- 
tissimus, jus-titia,  matr-imonium,  os-culum,  os-culor,  os-tium,  palus-ter,  ras- 
trum, ros-trum,  rus-ticus,  salic-tum. 

lY.  That  vowels  are  long  in  the  ending  of  the  Nominative  Singular  of 
nouns  and  adjectives  with  long  increments  in  the  Genitive ; 

frux,  lex,  lux,  pax,  plebs,  rex,  thorax,  vox. 

Y.  That  e is  long  before  x in  the  Perfect  Active  in  exi : 

rexi,  rexit ; texi,  texerunt ; vexi,  veximus ; dilexit,  dilexerunt. 

1 It  is  often  difficult,  and  sometimes  absolutely  impossible,  to  determine  the  natural 
quantity  of  vowels  before  two  consonants,  but  the  subject  has  of  late  received  special  at- 
tention from  German  orthoepists.  An  attempt  has  been  made  in  this  article  to  collect 
the  most  important  results  of  these  labors.  The  chief  sources  of  information  upon  this 
subject  are  (1)  ancient  inscriptions,  (2)  Greek  transcriptions  of  Latin  words,  (3)  the  testi- 
mony of  ancient  grammarians,  (4)  the  modern  languages,  (5)  the  comic  poets,  and  (6) 
etymology.  See  Brugmann,  ‘Grundriss  der  Vergleichenden  Grammatik’  ; Osthoff,  ‘Zur 
Geschichte  des  Perfects  im  Indo-germanischen  ’ ; Seelmann,  ‘ Die  Aussprache  des  Latein  ’ ; 
Stolz,  ‘Lateinische  Grammatik’^  Vanicek,  ‘ Etymologisches  Worterbuch  der  lateinischen 
Sprache  ’ ; Bouterwek  und  Tegge,  ‘ Die  altsprachliche  Orthoepie  ’ ; Biinger,  ‘ Die  latein 
ische  Quanti  tat  in  position  slangen  Silben’;  Wiggert,  ‘Zur  lateinischen  Orthoepie’; 
Marx, ‘Die  Aussprache  der  lateinischen  Yocale  in  position  slangen  Silben’;  ‘Schmitz, 
‘ Beitrage  ’ ; Eitschl,  ‘ Rheinisches  Museum,’  vol.  xxxi.,  pp.  481-492 ; Scholl,  ‘ Acta  Socie- 
tatis Philologae  Lipsiensis,’  vol.  vi.,  pp.  71-215;  Muller,  ‘Orthographiae  et  Prosodiae 
Latinae  Summarium’;  Foerster,  ‘Rheinisches  Museum,’  xxxiii.,  pp.  291-299. 

2 Though,  like  other  long  vowels,  they  were  probably  sometimes  shortened  before 
certain  consonants;  duorum,  duum,  duum;  nostrbrum,  nostrum,  nostrum;  see  VII  be- 
low, also  580,  IL 

3 Jntror^um  from  %ntrover8um  / ullus  from  unulus  / Mars  from  Ma'vors. 


382 


APPENDIX. 


VI.  That  long  vowels  occur  in  the  following  words  and  in  their  deriva^ 
tives : 


actio 

flictus 

nuntius 

rostrum 

actito 

flixi 

nupsi 

sescenti 

actor 

forma 

nuptiae 

sestertius 

actum 

fOrmOsus 

nuptum 

Sestius 

actus 

fractus 

nutrio 

structor 

anxius 

fructus 

nutrix 

structura 

aratrum 

illustris 

Ordior 

structus 

ardeo 

junctio 

Ordo 

struxi 

atrium 

junctus 

Ornamentum 

sumpsi 

axilla 

junxi 

O^rnO 

sumptus 

bestia 

lectito 

Ostia 

taxillus 

bustum 

lector 

Ostium 

tector 

calumnia 

lectus 

pastor 

tectus 

capesso 

lictor 

pastus 

tristis 

classis 

luctor 

paxillus 

«ulterior 

compsi 

luctus 

Pollio 

ultimus 

comptus 

luxi 

princeps 

ultra  ^ 

crispus 

lustro 

priscus 

unctio 

cunctus 

lustrum 

prOmpsi 

unctito 

custodio 

Marcus 

promptus 

unctor 

custos 

maxilla 

propinquus 

unctura 

deformis 

maximus 

punctus 

unctus 

dixi 

mille 

purgo 

unxi 

duxi 

mistus 

quartus 

■Qstus 

ebrius^ 

mixtus 

quinque 

usurpo 

emptio 

narro 

quintus 

Vestinus 

emptus 

nascor 

rastrum 

vexillum 

facesso 

Norba 

rectio 

victus 

festus 

nOrma 

rector 

villa 

Festus 

nOscO 

rectus 

Vipsanius 

festivus 

nundinae 

Eoscius 

vixi 

VII.  That  vowels  are  probably  short  before  nt  and  nd : 

amant,  amantis,  monentis,  prudentis,  prudentia,  amandus,  regendus. 

VIII.  That  the  short  vowels  of  Primitives  are  retained  in  Derivatives : 
inter-nus,  juven-tus,  liber-tas,  munus-culum,  super-bus,  vir-tus. 

IX.  That  vowels  are  generally  short  in  the  ending  of  the  Nominative 
Singular  of  nouns  and  adjectives  with  short  increments  in  the  Genitive: 

adeps,  calix,  dux,  grex,  hiems,  judex,  nex,  nux. 

Note. — Yowels  before  final  ns  are  of  course  excepted. 

X.  That  the  first  vowel  in  the  following  endings  is  short : 

1.  emus,  ernius,  erninus ; urnus,  urnius,  urninus : 
maternus,  Liternius,  Literninus,  taciturnus,  Saturnius,  Saturninus. 

2.  ustus,  estus,  ester,  estis,  esticus,  estinus,  estris ; 

robustus,  venustus,  vetustus,  honestus,  modestus,  campester,  silvester, 
agrestis,  caelestis,  domesticus,  clandestinus,  terrestris. 

XI.  That  all  vowels  are  to  be  treated  as  short  unless  there  are  good 
reasons  for  believing  them  to  be  long. 


INDEX  OF  VERBS. 


383 


INDEX  OF  YEEBS. 


This  Index  contains  an  alphabetical  list,  not  only  of  all  the  simple 
verbs  in  common  use  which  involve  any  important  irregularities,  but  also 
of  such  compounds  as  seem  to  require  special  mention.  In  regard  to 
compounds  of  prepositions  (344)  observe — 

1.  That  the  elements — preposition  and  verb — often  appear  in  the  com- 
pound in  a changed  form ; see  344,  4-6, 

2.  That  the  stem-vowel  is  often  changed  in  the  Perfect  and  Supine ; 
see  221. 


A 

Ab-do,*  ere,  didi,  ditum,  271. 
Ab-icio^  ^QQjacid^  271,  2. 

Ab-igo  ; see  ago^  271,  2. 

Aboleo,  ere,  evi,  itum,  p.  124,  foot- 
note 2. 

AbolescO,  ere,  olevi,  olitum,  277. 
Ab-ripiO;  see  rapio.,  274. 

Abs-condO  ; see  ohdo.,  271. 

Ab-sum,  290,  I. 

Ac-cendO,  ere,  i,  censum,  272,  3. 
Ac-cidO  ; see  cadd.,  272;  301. 

Ac-cinO  ; see  cano.,  271. 

Ac-cipiO  ; see  capib.,  271,  2. 

Ac-colO  ; see  colb.,  274. 

Ac-cumbO,  ere,  cubui,  cubitum,  273. 
Acesco,  ere,  acui,  — , 281. 

Ac-quirO  ; see  quaerb.,  278. 

AcuO,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 

Ad-do  ; see  ahdb.,  271 ; 255,  1.,  4. 
Ad-fari,  p.  142,  foot-note  5. 

Ad-ferO,  292,  2. 

Ad-imO ; see  mo,  271,  2. 

Ad-ipiscor,  i,  adeptus  sum,  283,  foot- 
note 1. 

Ad-olescO  ; see  abolescb.,  277. 

Ad-orior ; see  orior.,  288,  2. 

Ad-spiciO  ; see  aspicib.,  217,  2. 

Ad-stO,  259,  N.  2. 

Ad-sura,  290,  I. 

Ag-gredior ; see  gradior ^ 283. 
A-gnOscO ; see  nosco,  278. 

Ago,  ere,  egi,  actum,  271,  2. 

AiO,  def..,  297,  II. 

AlbeO,  ere,  — , 262,  N.  2. 

AlgeO,  ere,  alsi,  — , 265. 


Al-liciO,  ere,  Icxi,  lectura,  217,  2;  p. 
130,  foot-note  8. 

AlO,  ere,  alui,  alitum,  altum,  273. 
Amb-igO;  see  agb.,  271,  2. 

Amb-iO,  295,  N.  2. 

Amicio,  Ire,  ui  (xi),  turn,  285. 

AmO,  205. 

Amplector,  i,  amplexus  sum,  283. 
AngO,  ere,  &nxi,  — , 272,  N.  1. 
An-nuO,  ere,  i,  — , 272,  N.  1. 
Ante-capiO,  p.  128,  foot-note  14. 
Apage,  def..,  297,  III. 

Aperio,  ire,  ui,  turn,  285. 

AplBcor,  !,  aptus  sum,  283. 

Ap-pareO  ; ?,QQpareb.,  262;  301. 
Ap-petO  ; see  petb.,  278. 

Ap-piicO;  seejo/^co,  258. 

Ap-pOnO ; see  joono,  273. 

ArcfissO,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  278. 

ArdeO,  ere,  arsi,  arsum,  265, 

ArescO,  ere,  arui,  — , 281. 

ArguO,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 

\Ar-ripiO ; see  rapib^  274. 

A-scendO ; see  scandb.,  272,  3. 
A-spergO ; see  spargb.,  270. 

A-spiciO,  ere,  spexi,  spectum,  217,  2 
As-sentior,  iri,  sensus  sura,  288,  2. 
As-sideO ; see  sedeb^  267,  2. 

At-texO ; see  texb.,  274. 

At  tineO ; see  teneb.,  263. 

At-tingO;  see  tangb.,  271. 

At-tollO  ; see  tollb.,  271. 

AudeO,  ere,  ausus. sura,  268,  3. 

Audio,  211. 

Au-ferO,  292,  2. 

AugeO,  ere,  auxi,  auctum,  264. 

Ave,  def.  ; see  have.,  297,  III. 


^ Final  o in  verbs  is  sometimes  shortened,  though  rarely  in  the  best  writers. 


384 


INDEX  OF  VERBS. 


B 

Balbutio,  ire,  — , 284,  N.  2. 

Batuo,  ere,  i,  — , 272,  N.  1. 

Bibo,  ere,  I,  — , 272,  N.  1. 

Blandior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 

C 

Cado^  ere,  cecidi,  casum,  272. 
Caecutio,  ire,  — , 284,  N.  2. 

Caedo,  ere,  cecidi,  caesum,  272. 
Calesco,  ere,  calui,  — , 281. 

Calveo,  ere,  — , 262,  N.  2. 

Candeo,  ere,  ui,  262,  N.  1. 

Cando,  p.  129,  foot-note  14. 

Caneo,  ere,  — , 262,  N.  2. 

Cano,  ere,  cecini,  cantum,  271. 
CapGsso,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  278. 

Capio,  ere,  cepi,  captum,  217 ; 218 ; 
271,  2. 

Carpo,  ere,  si,  tum,  269. 

Caveo,  ere;  cavi,  cautum,  266. 

Cedo,  ere,  cessi,  cessum,  270. 

Cedo,  297,  III. 

Cello,  ohs. ; see  excello.,  273,  N. 

Ceno,  257,  N.  2. 

Censeo,  ere,  ui,  censum,  263. 

Cerno,  ere,  crevi,  cretum,  277. 

Cieo,  ere,  civi,  citum,  265,  N. 

Cingo,  ere,  cinxi,  cinctum,  269. 

Cio,  265,  N. 

Circum-ago,  p.  128,  foot-note  13. 
Circum-do,  255,  1.,  4;  259,  N.  1. 
Circum-sisto ; see  sisto.,  271. 
Circum-sto,  255,  I.,  4. 

Clango,  ere,  — , 272,  N.  2. 

Claudo,  ere,  clausi,  clausum,  270. 
Claudo,  ere,  — {to  be  lame).,  272,  N.  2. 
Co-arguo ; see  argud^  279. 

Co-emo,  p.  128,  foot-note  15. 

Coepi,  def..,  297. 

Co-gnosc6 ; see  nosco.,  278. 

Cogo,  ere,  coegi,  coactum ; see  ago., 
271,  2. 

Col-lido ; see  laedo.,  270. 

Col-ligo ; see  lead.,  271 , 2. 

Col-luceo ; see  luceo.,  265. 

Colo,  ere,  ui,  cultum,  274. 

Com-edo,  291,  N.  3. 

Com-miniscor,  i,  commentus  sum,  283. 
Com-moveo  ; see  moveo.,  266. 
Com-parco  (pereo) ; see  parco.,  272. 
Comperio,  ire,  peri,  pertum,  287,  N. 
Compesco,  ere,  pcscui,  — , 273,  N. 
Com-pingo;  see  pango.,  271. 

Com- plector,  i,  plexus  sum. 
Com-pleo,  ere,  evi,  etum  2f61. 
Com-primo  ; see  premo.,  270. 
Com-pungo,  ere,  punxi,  punctum ; 
pungo.,  271, 


Con-cido ; see  cado.,  272. 

Con-cido ; see  caedo^  272. 

Con-cino;  see  m/iu,  271. 

Con-cltido ; see  claudo.,  270. 
Con-cupisco,  ere,  cupivi,  cupitum 
281,  N. 

Con-cutio ; see  quatio.,  270. 

Con-do  ; see  abdo.,  271. 

Con-fercio  ; see  farcio.,  286. 

Con-fero,  292,  2. 

Con-licio  ; facio.,  271,  2. 

■'Con-fit,  def.^  297,  III. 

Con-fiteor;  fateor.,  268,  2. 
Con-fringo  ; see  frango,  271,  2. 
Con-gruo,  ere,  i,  — , 272,  N.  1. 
Coniveo,  ere,  nivi,  nixi,  — , 265, 
267,  3. 

Conor,  260. 

Con-sero  ; see  sero.,  277,  N. 

Con-sisto  ; see  sisto.,  271. 

Con-spicio,  ere,  spexi,  spectum, 217, 2. 
Con-stituo ; see  statuo,  279, 

Con-sto,  301 ; see  sto,  259. 

Consulo,  ere,  ui,  tum,  274. 
Con-temno ; see  temno,  272,  N.  2. 
Con-texo  \ see  texo,  274. 

Con-tingo;  see  tango,  271;  301. 
Convalesco,  ere,  valui,  valitum,  281,  N. 
Coquo,  ere,  coxi,  coctum. 

Cor-ripio  ; see  rapio,  274. 

Cor-ruo ; see  ruo,  279. 

Crebresco,  ere,  crebrui,  — , 282,  N. 
Credo,  ere,  credidi,  creditum,  271. 
Crepo,  are,  ui,  itum,  258. 

Cresco,  ere,  crevi,  cretum,  277. 

• Cubo,  are,  ui,  itum,  258. 

Cudo,  ere,  cudi,  ctisum,  272,  3. 
Cumbo  ; see  accumbo,  273. 

Cupio,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  217,  1 ; 278. 
Curro,  ere,  cucurri,  cursum,  272. 

1) 

Debeo,  262. 

De-cerpo,  ere,  sb  tum,  p.  127,  foot 
note  2. 

Decet,  impers.,  299. 

De-do;  see  abdo,  271. 

De-fendo,  ere,  i,  fensura,  272,  3. 
De-fetiscor ; see  fatiscor,  283. 

De-fit,  df.,  297,  111. 

Dego,  ere,  degi;  see  ago,  271,  2. 
Delecto,  impers.,  301. 

Deleo,  ere,  evi,  etum,  261. 

De-ligo  ; see  lego,  271,  2. 

De-mico  ; see  inico,  258. 

Demo,  ere,  dempsi,  demptum 
De-pango  ; see  pango,  271. 

De-primo  ; fiUQ  premo,  270. 

Depso,  ere,  ui,  itum,  tum,  273. 
De-scendo  ; see  scando,  272,  3. 


INDEX  OF  VERBS. 


385 


De-  silio  ; see  salid.^  285, 

De-sipio  ; see  sapio^  278. 

De-sum,  290,  I. 

De-tendo  ; see  tendo ^ 271. 

De-tineo  ; see  tened^  263. 

De-vertor;  see  verto.^  272,  3. 

Dico,  ere,  dixi,  dictum,  238. 

Dif^fero,  292,  2. 

Di-^nosco;  see  nosed.,  278. 

Di-ligo  ; see  lego.,  271,  2. 

Di-mico  ; see  mico.,  258. 

Di-rigo,  ere,  rexi,  rectum,  p.  127, 
foot-note  2. 

Disco,  ere,  didici,  — , 271. 

Dis-crepo ; see  crepd.,  258. 

Dis-cumbo  ; see  accumbd.,  273. 
Dis-pertior ; see  partior.,  288. 
Dis-pliced ; see  placed.,  262. 

Dis-sided ; see  seded.,  267,  2. 
Di-stingud  ; see  exstingudy  269. 

Di-std,  259,  N.  2. 

Ditesed,  ere,  — , 282. 

Dividd,  ere,  visL  visum,  270. 

Dd,  dare,  dedi,  datum,  259. 

Doced,  ere,  ui,  doctum,  263. 

Dolet,  impers.y  301. 

Domd,  are,  ui,  itum,  258. 

Ddnd,  259. 

Dued,  ere,  duxi,  ductum,  269  ; 238. 
Dulcescd,  ere,  — , 282. 

Duplied,  p.  123,  toot-note  6. 

Duresed,  ere,  durui, — , 282,  N. 

E 

Edd,  ere,  edi,  esum,  272,  2;  291. 
Ef-fari,  p.  142,  foot-note  5. 

Eged,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 

E-licid,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 

E-ligd;  see  legdy  271,  2. 

E-micd  ; see  miedy  258. 

Emined,  ere,  ui,  — , -262,  N.  1. 

Emd,  ere,  emi,  emptum,  271,  2. 
E-necd,  are,  ui,  turn,  258. 

Ed,  ire,  ivi,  itum,  295. 

Esurid,  ire,  — , itum,  284,  N.  2. 
E-vado,  ere,  vasi,  vasum,  270. 
Ex-ardesed,  ere,  arsi,  arsum,  281,  N. 
Excelld,  ere,  ui  (rare),  — , 273,  N. 
Ex-cludd  ; see  clauddy  270. 

Ex-currd  ; see  currdy  272. 

Ex-olescd ; see  aholescdy  277. 
Experglscor,  i,  experrectus  sum,  283. 
Ex-perior,  iri,  pertus  sum,  288,  2. 
Ex-pled  ; see  compledy  261. 

Ex-plied  ; see  plicdy  258. 

Ex-plddo ; ^Q^plauddy  270. 
Ex-stingud,  ere,  stinxi,  stinctum,  269. 
Ex-std,  259,  N.  2. 

Ex-tendn  ; see  tertddy  271. 

Ex-tolld;  see  tolldy  271. 

26 


F 

Facesso,  ere,  ivT,  i,  itum,  278. 

Facid,  ere,  feci,  factum,  217,  1;  238; 
271,  2. 

Falld,  ere,  fefelli,  falsum,  272. 

Farcid,  ire,  farsi,  fartum,  farctum,  286. 
Fari,  def.y  297,  II. 

Fateor,  eri,  fassus  sum,  268,  2. 
Fatised,  ere,  — , 272,  N.  2. 

Fatiscor,  i,  ■ — , 283. 

Faveo,  ere,  favi,  fautum,  266. 

Fendd,  obs.  ; see  defe7iddy  272,  3, 
Ferid,  ire,  — , 284,  N.  2. 

Fero,  ferre,  tuli,  latum,  292. 

Ferdcid,  ire,  — , 284,  N.  2. 

Ferved,  ere,  fervi,  ferbui,  — , 267,  3. 
Fidd,  ere,  fisus  sum,  283. 

Figd,  ere,  fixi,  fixum,  270. 

Findd,  ere,  fidi,  fissum,  272,  3. 

Fingo,  ere,  finxi,  fictum. 

Finid,  284. 

Fid,  fieri,  factus  sum,  294. 

Flaved,  ere,  — , 262,  N.  2. 

Flectd,  ere,  fiexi,  flexum,  270. 

Fled,  ere,  evi,  etum,  261. 

Fldred,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 
Fldrescd,  ere,  fldrui,  — , 281. 

Fluo,  ere,  fluxi,  fluxum,  279,  N. 
Fddid,  ere,  fddi,  fossum,  217, 1 ; 272,  2. 
Forem,  def.y  204,  2;  297,  111,  2. 
Foved,  ere,  fovi,  fdtum,  266. 

Frangd,  ere,  fregi,  fractum,  271,  2. 
Fremd,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 

Frendd,  ere,  — , fressum,  fresum,  270. 
Fried,  are,  ui,  atum,  tum,  258. 

Friged,  ere,  frixi  (rare),  — , 265. 
Fronded,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 
-Fruor,  i,  fructus,  fruitus  sum,  283. 
Fugid,  ere,  fugi,  fugitum,  217,  1 ; 
271,  2. 

Fulcio,  ire,  fulsi,  fultum,  286. 

Fulged,  ere,  fulsi,  — , 265. 

Fulgd,  265,  foot-note  5. 

Fulminat,  impers.y  300. 

Fundd,  ere,  uidi,  fusum,  272,  2. 
Fungor,  i,  functus  sum,  283. 

Furd,  ere,  ui,  — , 273,  N. 

G 

Gannid,  ire,  — , 284,  N.  2. 

Gauded,  ere,  gavisus  sum,  268,  3, 
Gemd,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 

Gerd,  ere,  gessi,  gestum,  269. 

Gignd,  ere,  genui,  genitum,  273. 
Glised,  ere,  — , 272,  N.  2. 

Gradior,  i,  gressus  sum,  217,  3;  283 
GrandSscd,  ere,  — , 282. 

Grandinat,  impers.y  300. 

Gravesco,  ere,  — . 


386 


INDEX  OF  VERBS, 


H 

Habeo,  262. 

Haereo,  ere,  haesi,  haesum,  265. 
Haurio,  Ire,  hausi,  haustum,  haustu- 
rus, hausurus,  286. 

Have,  297,  III. 

Hebeo,  4re,  — , 262,  N.  2. 

Hisco,  ere,  — , 272,  N.  2. 

Honoro,  257. 

Horreo,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 

Hortor,  232 ; 260. 

Humeo,  ere,  — , 262,  N.  2. 

I 

Ico,  ere,  ici,  ictum,  272,  3. 

I- gnosco  j see  nosco,,  278. 

II- licio,  ere,  IM,  lectum,  217,  2. 
Il-lido  ; see  laedo,,  270. 

Imbuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 

Immineo,  ere,  — , 262,  N.  2. 

Im-parco  ; parco,,  272. 

Im-pertior;  partior,,  288. 
Im-pingo  ; pango,  271. 

Im-pleo,  p.  124,  foot-note  1. 
In-eendo;  see  accendo,  272,  3. 
Incesso,  ere,  ivi,  i, — , 278. 

In-cido ; see  cado,  272. 

In-cido ; see  caedo,  272. 

In-crepo ; see  crepo,  258. 

In-cresco ; see  cresco,  277. 

In-cumbo ; see  accumbo,  273. 

In-cutio  ; see  quatio,  270. 

Ind-igeo,  ere,ui, — ; see^^^^^,  262,  N.  1. 
Ind-ipiscor ; see  apiscor,  283. 

In-do  ; see  abdo,  271. 

Indulges,  ere,  dulsi,  dultum,  264. 
Ineptio,  ire,  — , 284,  N.  2. 

|n-fero,  292,  2. 

Intit,  def.,  297,  III. 

Ingruo,  ere,  i,  — , 272,  N.  1. 
In-notesco,  ere,  notui,  282,  N. 
In-olesco  ; see  abolesco,  277. 

Inquam,  def.,  297,  II. 

In-sideo ; see  sedeo,  267,  2. 

In-spicio,  ere,  spexi,  spectum. 

In-sto ; see  sto,  259. 

Intel-lego ; see  lego,  271,  2. 

Interest,  impers.,  301. 

Inter-nosco ; see  nosco,  278. 
In-veterasco,  ere,  ravi,  ratum,  281,  N. 
Irascor,  i,  — , 283. 

Ir-ruo ; see  ruo,  279. 

J 

Jacio,  ere,  jeci,  jactum,  217, 1 ; 271,  2. 
Jubeo,  ere/ jussi,  jussum,  265. 

Juro,  257,  N.  2. 

Juvenesco,  ere,  — . 

Juvo,  are,  juvi,  jutum,  259,  2 ; 301. 


L 

Labor,  i,  lapsus  sum,,  283. 

Lacesso,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  278. 

Lacio,  oos.  ; see  allicio,  p.  130,  foot- 
note 8;  217,  2. 

Lacteo,  ere,  — , 262,  N.  1. 

Laedo,  ere,  laesi,  laesum,  270. 
Lambo,  ere,  i,  — , 272,  'N.  l. 

Langueo,  ere,  i,  — , 267,  3. 

Largior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 

Lateo,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 

Lavo,  are,  lavi,  lautum,  lotum,  lava 
tum,  259,  2. 

Lego,  ere,  legi,  lectum,  271,  2. 

Lenio,  284. 

Libero,  257. 

Libet,  impers.,  299. 

Liceor,  eri,  itus  sum,  268. 

Licet,  impers.,  299. 

Lino,  ere,  livi,  levi,  litum,  278, 
Linquo,  ere,  liqui,  — , 271,  2. 

Liqueo,  ere,  liqui  (licui),  267. 

Liquet,  impers.,  299. 

Liquor,  i,  — , 283. 

Loquor,  i,  locutus  sum,  283. 

Luceo,  ere,  luxi,  — , 265. 

Lucescit,  impers.,  300. 

Ludo,  ere,  lusi,  lusum,  270. 

Lugeo,  ere,  luxi,  — , 265. 

Luo,  ere,  lui,  — . 

•M 

Macresco,  ere,  macrui,  — , 282,  N. 
Madeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 
Madesco,  ere,  madui,  — . 

Maereo,  ere,  — , 262,  N.  2. 

Malo,  malle,  malui,  — , 293. 

Mando,  ere,  i,  mansum,  272,  3. 
Maneo,  ere,  mansi,  mansum,  265. 
Maturesco,  ere,  maturui,  — , 282,  N. 
Medeor,  eri,  — , 268,  2. 

Memini,  def.,  297,  I. 

Mentior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 

Mereor,  eri,  itus  sum,  268. 

Mergo,  ere,  mersi,  mersum,  270. 
Metior,  iri,  mensus  sum,  288,  2. 

Meto,  ere,  messui,  messum,  275. 
Metuo,  ere,  ui,  — , 272,  N.  1. 

Mico,  are,  ui,  — , 258. 

Miniscor,  obs.  ; see  comminiscor,  283 
Minuo,  ere,  ui,  iitum,  279. 

Miror,  260. 

Misceo,  ere,  miscui,  mistum,  mixtum, 
263. 

Misereor,  eri,  itus  or  tus  sum,  268,  % 
Miseret,  impers.,  299. 

Mitesco,  ere,  — , 282. 

Mitto,  ere,  misi,  missum,  270. 

Molior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 


INDEX  OF  VERBS, 


m 


Alollesco,  ere,  — , 282. 

Molo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 

Moneo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  207 ; 262. 
Mordeo,  ere,  momordi,  morsum,  267. 
Morior,  i (iri),  mortuus  sum,  217,  3 ; 
283. 

Moveo,  ere,  movi,  motum,  266. 
Mulceo,  ere,  mulsi,  mulsum,  265. 
Mulgeo,  ere,  mulsi,  mulsum,  265. 
Multiplico,  p.  123,  foot-note  6. 

Munio,  284. 

N 

Nanciscor,  i,  nactus  (nanctus)  sum, 
283. 

Nascor,  i,  natus  sum,  283. 

Neco,  p.  123,  foot-note  4. 

Necto,  ere,  nSxi,  nexui,  nexum,  270 ; 
275. 

Neg-lego,  ere,  lexi,  lectum;  see  lego,, 
271,  2. 

Neo,  ere,  nevi,  netum,  261. 

Ne-queo,  ire,  ivi,  itum,  296. 

Nigresco,  ere,  nigrui,  — . 

Ningo,  ere,  ninxi,  — , 272,  N.  1. 
Niteo,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 

Nitor,  i,  nisus,  nixus  sum,  283. 
Noceo,  262. 

Nolo,  nolle,  nolui,  — , 293. 

Nomino,  257. 

Nosco,  ere,  novi,  notum,  278. 

Nubo,  ere,  nupsi,  nuptum,  269. 
Nupturio,  ire,  ivi,  — , 284,  N.  2. 

0 

Ob-do  ; see  abdo^  271. 

Ob-dormiseo,  ere,  donnivi,  dormitum, 
281,  N. 

Obliviscor,  i,  oblitus  sum,  283. 
Ob-mutesco,  ere,  mutui,  — , 282,  N. 
Ob-sideo  ; see  sedeo,,  267,  2. 
Ob-Bolesco ; see  abolesco,,  277. 

Ob-sto : see  sto,,  259. 

Ob-surdesco,  ere,  surdui,  — . 

Ob-tineo  ; see  teneo,,  263. 

Oc-cido ; see  cado,,  272. 

Oc-cido ; see  caedo,,  272. 

Oc-cino;  see  cano^  271. 

Oc-oipio  ; see  capw,,  271,  2. 

Occulo,  ere,  ui,  tum,  274.  ' 

Odi,  def.,,  297,  I. 

Of-fendo  ; see  defendo,,  272,  3. 
Of-fero,  292,  2.  ' 

Oleo,  ere.  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 

Olesco,  obsolete  ; see  abolesco,,  277. 
Operio,  Ire,  ui,  tum,  285. 

Oportet,  impers,,,  299. 

Op-perior,  iri,  pertus,  peritus  sum, 
. 288,  2. 

Ordior,  iri,  orsus  sum,  288,  2. 


Orior,  iri,  ortus  sum,  288,  2. 

Os- tendo ; see  tendo,,  271. 

Ovat,  def,,,  297,  111. 

P 

Paciscor,  i,  pactus  sum,  283. 

Paenitet,  impers,,,  299. 

Palleo,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 

Pando,  ere,  i,  pansum,  passum,  272^  3. 
Pango,  ere,  pepigi,  pactum,  271. 
Pango,  ere,  panxi,  pegi,  panctum, 
pactum,  271. 

Parco,  ere,  peperci  (parsi),  parsum, 
272. 

Pareo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  262. 

Pario,  ere,  peperi,  partum,  217,  1 ; 
271. 

Partior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 

Parturio,  ire,  ivi,  — , 284,  N.  2. 

Pasco,  ere,  pavi,  pastum,  276. 

Pateo,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 

Patior,  i,  passus  sum,  217,  3 ; 283. 
Paveo,  ore,  pavi,  — , 266. 

Pecto,  ere,  pexi,  pexum,  270. 
Pel-licio,  ere,  lexi,  lectum,  217,  2. 
Pello,  ere,  pepuli,  pulsum,  272. 
Pendeo,  ere,  pependi,  pensum,  267. 
Pendo,  ere,  pependi,  pensum,  272. 
Per-ago,  p.  128,  foot-note  13. 
Per-cello ; see  excello,,  273,  N. 
Per-eenseo ; see  censeo,,  263. 

Per-do,  ere,  didi,  ditum ; see  abdo,, 
271. 

Pergo  {for  per-rigo),  ere,  perrexi, 
perrectum  ; see  rego,  269. 
Per-petior ; see  patior,  283. 

Per-sto  • see  sto,  259. 

Per- taedet,  p.  143,  foot-note  8. 
Per-tineo ; see  teneo,  263. 

Pessum-do,  259,  N.  1. 

Peto,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  278. 

Piget,  impers,,  299. 

PingO,  ere,  pinxi,  pictum. 

Pinso  (piso),  ere,  i,  ui,  pinsitum, 
pistum,  pinsum,  272,  3 ; 273. 
Placeo,  262;  301. 

Plaudo,  ere,  si,  sum,  270. 

Plecto,  ere,  plexi,  plexum,  270. 
Plector ; see  amplector,  283. 

Pleo,  obsolete  ; see  compleo,  261. 
Plico,  are,  avi,  ui,  atum,  itum,  258. 
Pluo,  ere,  i or  pluvi,  — , 272,  N.  1 . 
300. 

Polleo,  ere,  — , 262,  N.  2. 

Polliceor,  eri,  itus  sura,  268. 

Pono,  ere,  posui,  positum,  273. 

Posco,  ere,  poposci,  — , 272. 
Pos-sideo ; see  sedeo,  267,  2. 

Possum,  posse,  potui,  — , 290,  II. 
Potior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 


388 


INDEX  OF  VERBS. 


Poto,  are,  avi,  atum,  um,  257,  N.  1. 
Prae-ciao  ; see  candy  271. 

Prae-curro  ; see  currdy  272. 
Prae-sideo ; see  sededy  267,  2. 

Prae-sto  ; see  259;  301. 
Prae-sum,  290,  1. 

Prae-vertor;  see  vertdy  272,  3. 
Prandeo,  ere,  i,  pransum,  267,  3. 
Prehendo,  ere,  i,  hensurn,  272,  3. 
Premo,  ere,  pressi,  pressum,  270. 
Prendo,  p.  130,  foot-note  1. 

Prod-igo;  see  agdy  271. 

Pro-do  ; see  abady  271. 

Proficiscor,  i,  profectus  sum,  283. 
Pro-fiteor ; see/a^6or,  268,  2. 

Promo,  ere,  pr.Ompsi,  promptum. 
Pro-sum,  prodesse,  profui,  — , 290, 

Pro-tendo  ; see  tenddy  271. 

Psallo,  ere,  i,  — , 272,  N.  1. 

Pudet,  impers.y  299. 

Puerasco,  ere,  — , 282. 

Pugno,  257. 

Pungo,  ere,  pupugi,  punctum,  271. 
Punio,  284. 

Q 

Quaero,  ere,  quaesivi,  quaesitum,  278. 
Quaeso,  def.y  297,  III. 

Quatio,  ere,  quassi,  quassum,  217,  1 ; 
270. 

Queo,  ire,  ivi,  itum,  296. 

Queror,  i,  questus  sum,  283. 

Quiesco,  ere,  quievi,  quietum,  277. 

R 

Rado,  ere,  rasi,  rasum,  270. 

Rapio,  ere,  rapui,  raptum,  217, 1 ; 274. 
Raucio,  ire,  rausi,  rausum,  287. 
Re-censeo ; see  censed y 263. 

Re-cido ; see  caddy  272. 

Re-cido,*  see  caeddy  272. 

Re-criidesco,  ere,  crudui,  282,  N. 
Red-arguo  ; see  argudy  279. 

Red-do  ; see  abddy  271. 

Re-fello  ; see  falldy  272. 

Re- fero  ; see  ferdy  292. 

Refert,  impers.y  301. 

Rego,  'ere,  rexi,  rectum,  209  ; 269. 
Re-linquo  ; see  linqudy  271 , 2. 
Re-miniscor,  i,  — , 283. 

Renideo,  ere,  — , 262,  N.  2. 

Reor,  reri,  ratus  sum,  268,  2. 
Re-pango;  ^QQpangdy  271. 

Re-parco ; see^arco,  272. 

Re-perio,  ire,  peri,  pertum,  287,  N. 
Re-plico,  p.  123,  foot-note  6. 

Re-sideo  ; see  sededy  267,  2. 

Re-sipeo  ; see  sapidy  278. 


Re-sono  ; see  sondy  258. 

Re-spergo  ; see  spargd^  270. 
Re-spondeo,  255,  I.,  4, 

Re-tendc) ; see  tenddy  271. 

Re-tineo  ; see  tenedy  263. 

Re-vertor ; see  vertdy  272,  3. 
Re-vivlsco,  ere,  vixi,  victum,  281,  Is 
Rideo,  ere^  risi,  risum,  265. 

Ringor,  i,  rictus  sum,  283. 

Rodo,  ere,  rosi,  rosum,  270. 

Rorat,  impers.y  300. 

Rubeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 

Rudo,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  278. 

Rumpo,  ere,  rupi,  ruptum,  271,  2. 
Ruo,  ere,  rui,  rutum,  ruiturus,  279. 

S 

Saepio,  ire,  psi,  ptum,  286. 

Sagio,  ire,  — , 284,  N.  2. 

Salio,  ire,  ui  (ii),  tum,  285. 

Salve,  6?^.,  297,  III. 

Sancio,  ire,  sanxi,  sancitum,  sanctum 
286. 

Sapio,  ere,  ivi,  ui,  — , 217, 1 ; 278. 
Sarcio,  ire,  sarsi,  sartum,  286. 
Sat-ago  ; see  agdy  271,  2. 

Satis-do,  259,  N.  1. 

Satis-facio,  p.  129,  foot-note  1. 

Scabo,  ere,  scabi,  — , 271,  2. 

Scando,  ere,  di,  scansum,  272,  3. 
Scindo,  ere,  scidi,  scissum,  272,  3. 
Scio,  284. 

Scisco,  ere,  scivi,  scitum,  281,  N. 
Seco,  are,  ui,  tum,  258. 

Sedeo,  ere,  sedi,  sessum,  267. 

Se-ligo  ; see  legdy  271,  2. 

Sentio,  ire,  sensi,  sensum,  287. 
Sepelio,  ire,  ivi,  sepultum,  284. 
Sequor,  i,  secutus  sum,  283. 

Sero,  ere,  sevi,  satum,  277,  N. 

Sero,  ere,  serui,  sertum,  274. 

Sido,  ere,  i, — , 272,  N.  1. 

Sileo,  ere,  ui,  — ^ 262,  N.  1. 

Sino,  ere,  sivi,  situm,  278. 

Sisto,  ere,  stiti,  statum,  271. 

Sitio,  ire,  ivi,  — , 284. 

Soleo,  ere,  solitus  sum,  268,  3. 

Solvo,  ere,  solvi,  solutum,  272,  3. 
Sono,  are,  ui,  itum,  258. 

Sorbeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 

Sortior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 

Spargo,  ere,  sparsi,  sparsum,  270. 
Specio,  obs.y  217,  2. 

Sperno,  ere,  sprevi,  spretum,  277. 
Spero,  257. 

Splendeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 
Spondeo,  ere,  spopondi,  spOnsum 
267. 

Squaleo,  ere,  — , 262,  N.  2. 


INDEX  OF  VERBS, 


389 


Statuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 

Sterno,  ere,  stravi,  stratum,  276. 
Sternuo,  ere,  i,  — , 272,  N.  1. 

Sterto,  ere,  ui,  — , 273,  N. 

Stinguo,  ere,  — , p.  127,  foot-note  3. 
Sto,  are,  steti,  statum,  259. 

Strepo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 

Strideo,  ere,  stridi,  — , 267,  3. 

Strido,  ere,  i,  — , 272,  N.  1. 

Struo,  ere,  struxi,  structum,  279,  N. 
Studeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 

Stupeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Suadeo,  ere,  si,  sum,  265. 

Sub-do,  ere,  didi,  ditum;  see  ahdo^ 
271. 

Sub-igo  ; see  ago,  271,  2. 

Sub-silio  ; see  satio,,  285. 

Suc-cedo ; see  cedo,,  270. 

Suc-cendo;  see  accendo,,  272,  3. 
Suc-censeo  ; see  censeo,,  263. 

Suc-cido  ; see  cado,,  272. 

Suc-cido  ; see  caedo,,  272. 

Suc-cresco ; see  cresco,,  277. 

Spesco,  ere,  suevi,  suetum,  277. 
Suf-fero,  292,  2. 

Suf-ficio  ; see  facio,,  271,  2. 

Suf-fodio ; fodio,,  272,  2. 

Sug-gero  ; gero,,  269. 

Sum,  esse,  fui,  — , 203,  1 ; 204. 

Sumo  ere,  psi,  ptum,  269. 

Superbio,  ire,  — , 284,  N.  2. 
Super-jacio,  p.  129,  foot-note  2. 
Supplico,  258,  foot-note. 

Sup-pono;  see/><?/^o,  273. 

Surgo  {for  sur-rigo),  ere,  surrexi, 
surrectum  ; see  rego,,  269. 

T 

Taceo,  262. 

Taedet,  impers.,  299. 

Tango,  ere,  tetigi,  tactum,  271. 
Temno,  ere,  — , 272,  N.  2. 

Tendo,  ere,  tetendi,  tentum,  tensum, 
271. 

Teneo,  ere,  ui,  tum,  263. 

Tepesco,  ere,  tepui,  — , 281. 

Tergeo,  ere,  tersi,  tersum,  265 ; p. 

128,  foot-note  3. 

Tergo,  ere,  tersi,  tersum,  270. 

Tero,  ere,  trivi,  tritum,  278. 

Texo,  ere,  ui,  tum,  274. 

Timeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 

Tollo,  ere,  sustuli,  sublatum,  271. 


Tondeo,  ere,  totondi,  tonsum,  267. 
Tono,  are,  ui  (itum),  258  ; 300. 
Torpeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 
Torqueo,  ere,  torsi,  tortum,  264. 
Torreo,  ere,  torrui,  tostum,  263. 
Tra-do  ; see  ahdd,,  271. 

Traho,  ere,  traxi,  tractum,  269. 
Tremo,  ere,  ui,  — , 273,  N. 

Tribuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 

Trudo,  ere,  trusi,  trusum,  270. 
Tueor,  eri,  tuitus,  tutus  sum,  268. 
Tundo,  ere,  tutudi,  tunsum,  tusum 
272. 

Turgeo,  ere,  tursi  {rare),  — , 265. 
Tussio,  ire,  284,  N.  2. 

U 

Ulciscor,  i,  ultus  sum,  283. 

Urgeo,  ere,  ursi,  — , 265. 

Uro,  ere,  ussi,  ustum,  269. 

Utor,  i,  usus  sum,  283. 

V 

Vado,  ere,  — , 272,  N.  2. 

Vagio,  ire,  ivi,  — , 284. 

Veho,  ere,  vexi,  vectum,  269. 

Vello,  ere,  velli  (vulsi),  vulsum,  272,  3, 
Vendo,  ere,  didi,  ditum,  271. 

Ven-eo,  295,  3. 

Venio,  ire,  veni,  ventum,  287,  N. 
Venum-do,  259,  N.  1. 

Vereor,  eri,  veritus  sum,  268. 

Vergo,  ere,  — , 272,  N.  2. 

Verro,  ere,  verri,  versum,  272,  3. 
Verto^ere,  ti,  sum,  272,  3. 

Vertor;  see  verto,  272,  3. 

Vescor,  i_,  — , 283. 

Veterasco,  ere,  ravi,  — , 276. 

Veto,  are,  ui,  itum,  258. 

Video,  ere,  vidi,  visum,  267,  2. 
Vilesco,  ere,  vilui,  — , 282,  N. 

Vincio,  ire,  vinxi,  vinctum,  286. 
Vinco,  ere,  vici,  victum,  271,  2. 
Vireo,  ere,  ui,  — , 262,  N.  1. 

Viresco,  ere,  virui,  — , 281. 

Viso,  ere,  i,  um,  272,  3. 

Vivo,  ere,  vixi,  victum,  269. 

Voco,  257. 

Volo,  velle,  volui,  — , 293. 

Volvo,  ere,  volvi,  volutum,  272^  3. 
Vomo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 

Voveo,  ere,  vovi,  votum,  266. 


390 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Note  — The  numbers  refer  to  articles^  not  to  pages.  Acc.  or  accus.  = accusative; 
= adjectives ; = composition ; = compounds;  = conjugation; 

conjunc.  = conjunctions;  constr.  = construction;  ff.  = and  the  following;  gen.  or  genit. 
= genitive ; gend.  = gender ; ger.  = gerund ; loc.  or  locat.  = locative ; preps.  — prepo- 
sitions; w.  = with. 

It  has  not  been  thought  advisable  to  overload  this  index  with  such  separate  words  as 
may  be  readily  referred  to  classes,  or  to  general  rules,  or  even  with  such  exceptions  as 
may  be  readily  found  under  their  respective  heads.  Accordingly,  the  numerous  excep- 
tions in  Dec.  III.  are  not  inserted,  as  they  may  be  best  found  under  the  respective  end- 
ings, 69-115. 


A 

A,  a,  sound,  5 ; 10  ff.  A final  short- 
ened, 21,  2.  in  nom.,  accus.,  and 
voc.  pi.,  46,  2,  1).  ^-nouns,  Uecl. 

1.,  48;  «-verbs,  205.  Nouns  in 
Decl.  III.,  69;  quant,  of  increm., 

585. 1.,  3 ; gender,  111.  -^,  adverbs 

in,  304,  1.,  3.  -A,  prepositions  in,  p. 
145,  foot-note  11 ; p.  149,  foot-note 
2;  adverbs  in,  304,  II.,  2.  -Ay  -d, 
suffix,  320.  -A,  derivatives  in,  326, 

2.  Ay  changed  in  compds.,  344,  4, 
N.  1.  A or  d,  final,  580,  I.  ; 580, 

111.,  N.  2;  581,  III.;  in  increm.  of 
_decl.,585;  585, 1. ; conj.,586;  586,  I. 
Ay  aby  abSy  in  compds.,  344,  5;  in 

compds.,  w.  dat.,  386,  2;  w.  abl., 
434,  N.  1.  Aby  as  adverb,  379,  2, 
N.  Ay  aby  abSy  with  abl.,  434;_434, 
I. ; of  agent,  388,  2 ; 415, 1.  Ay  aby 
abSy^  434,  N.  2.  Ay  aby  abSy  desig- 
nating abode,  446,  N.  4.  Ay  aby  w. 
ger.,  p.  316,  foot-note  1. 
Abbreviations,  649,  1 ; 650. 

AbhinCy  denoting  interval,  p.  230, 
foot-note  2 ; 430,  N.  3. 

AbieSy  Is  in,  581,  VI.,  1. 

-abilis,  d in,  587,  III!,  2. 

Ablative,  sing.,  original  ending  of, 
p.  20,  foot-note  5.  Abl.  sing,  in 
Decl.  111.,  62,  II.  ff.  ; 63,  2;  64,  N. 
3 ; in  adjs.,  154,  notes  1 and  2 ; 157, 
N.  Abl.  plur.,  Decl.  I.,  49,  4; 
Decl.  111.,  68,  5;  Decl.  IV.,  117. 
Ablative,  translation  of,  48,  w.  foot- 
note 4.  Relations  denoted,  367. 
Syntax,  411  ff.  Abl.  w.  locat.,  363, 
4,  2);  w.  adjs.,  391,  II.,  3;  400,  3; 


w.  refert y 408,  I.,  2;  w.  verbs  of 
accusing,  etc.,  410,  II.,  3;  w.  verbs 
of  condemning,  410,  III.  Abl.  of 
place,  41 2 ; 425  ff,  ; separation, 
source,  cause,  413  ff.  AbL  w.  com- 

garat.,  417.  Instrumental  abl.,  418 
*.  Abl.  of  accompaniment,  4J9  ; 
means,  420.  Abl.  in  special  con- 
structions, 421.  Abl.  of  price,  422; 
difference,  423 ; specification,  424. 
Locative  abl.,  425  ff.  Abl.  of  time, 
429.  Abl.  abs.,  431.  Abl.  w.  preps., 
432;  434;  435;  w.  compds.,  434, 
N.  1 ; w.  adverbs,  437.  Infin.  in 
abl.  abs.,  439,  IV. 

Ablative  sing,  in  «,  581,  III.,  1. 
-abrum,  « in,  587,  I.,  1. 

AbSy  in  compds.,  344,  5.  Abs  w.  abl., 
434;434,  N.  2. 

Abseiite-y  constr.,  438,  6,  N. 

Absolute  Abl.,  431. 

Absolvdy  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 
AbsquSy  w.  abl.,  434. 

Abstineo y constr.,  p.  211,  foot-note  5. 
Abstract  nouns,  39,  2,  2);  plur.,  130, 
2 and  3.  A bstract  nouns  from  adjs. , 
325. 


Absuniy  w.  dat.,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 

Abest y constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 
Abundey  w.  gen.,p.  209,  foot-note  3. 
-abundus,  « in,  587,  111.,  2. 

-abus  for  -iSy  Decl.  I. , 49,  4. 

ACy  310,  1 ; 554,  I. ; meaning  aSy  451, 
5 ; thaUy  459,  2 ; 554,  1.,  2,  N.  Ac 
sly  311,  2;  w.  subj.  in  conditions, 
513,  II. 

Acatalectic,  603,  N.  3. 

Accent,  rhythmic,  599. 

Accentuation,  17  n. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


391 


Accidit^  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 
Accingo.^  constr.,  377. 

Accommodatus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot- 
note 1. 

Accompaniment,  abl.  of,  418  tf. 
Accusative,  formation  of,  Decl.  II., 
51,  2,  6);  Decl.  III.,  58,  1,  5):  62, 
II.  ff. ; 63,  1 ; 64,  N.  2 ; 67,  N.  2 ; 
68,  2 and  6;  in  adjs.,  154,  N.  1; 
158,  1. 

Accusative,  syntax  of,  370  ff.  Direct 
object,  371  n. ; cognate,  371,  1.  and 

ll.  : acc.  of  effect,  371,  I.,  2,  2) ; w. 
veroal  adis.  and  nouns,  3y1,  I.,  N.  ; 
w.  compds.,  372.  Two  accs.,  373 
ff.  Predicate  acc.,  373,  1.  Poetic 

acc. ,  377.  Adverbial  acc.,  378  ff. 

Acc.  of  specification,  378  ; of  time 
and  space,  379 ; of  limit,  380  ; poet- 
ical dat.  for,  380,  4.  Acc.  in  exclam., 
381.  Acc.  for  gen.,  407.  Acc.  w. 
referi  and  interest.,  408,  I.,  3 ; w. 
preps.,  432;  433;  435;  w.  adverbs, 
437 ; as  object,  w.  infin.,  534.  Acc. 
as  subj.  of  infin.,  536.  Acc.  of  ger., 
542,  111. 

Accusative,  Greek,  in  -«5,  581,  V.,  2. 

Acc.  plur.  in  -W5,  581,  IX,,  2. 
Accusing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409, 
_II.  ; 410,  II. 

Acer.,  deck,  153. 

-aceus,  adjs.  in,  329;  d in,  587,  III.,1. 
Acies.,^  deck,  122,  2. 

Acquitting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409,  II. 
acrum,  d in,  587,  1.,  1. 

Action,  repeated,  in  temp,  clauses, 
518,  X.  2,  2) ; 518, 1. 

Active  voice,  195.  Active  and  passive 
constr.,  464. 

^acundus,  d in,  587,  III.,  2. 

Acus.,  deck,  117,  1 ; gend.,  118. 

Ad  in  compds.,  344,  5;  in  compds. 
w.  two  accs.,  376;  w.  dat.,  386. 
Ad  w.  acc.,  433 ; 433,  I.  ; after 
adjs.,  391,  11.,  1 ; w.  r'efert  and  in- 
terest., 408,  I.,  3.  Ad'  designating 
abode,  446,  N.  4.  Ad  w.  ger.,  p. 
315,  foot-note  5 ; denoting  purpose, 
542,  III.,  N.  2. 

Adeo^  551,  N.  2;  554,  I.,  4. 

-ades,  a in,  587,  II.,  1. 

Adfatim  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3 ; 

quant,  of  pen.,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 
Adficid  w.  abk,  420,  2. 

Aafinis  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3; 

p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Adipiscor  w.  gen.,  410,  V.,  3. 

Adgaceo  w.  acc.  or  dat.,  p.  202,  foot- 
note 1. 

Adjective,  146 ; deck  of,  147  ff'. ; ir- 


regular, 151  ; 159.  Compar.,  160 
ff.  Numerals,  172  ff.  ; deck  of,  175 
ff.  Demon.,  186,  4.  Eel.,  187,  4. 
Inter.,  188,  4.  Derivation,  328  ff. 
Composition,  342.  W.  dat.,  391 ; 
400,  1;  w.  gen.,  397,  3;  399  ; of 
gerund,  p.  315,  foot-note  2.  Adj. 
for  gen.,  395,  N.  2.  Adj.  w.  abk, 
400,  3;  414,  III.;  416;  420;  421. 
Agreement,  438  ff'.  Use,  440.  W. 
force  of  substantives,  441 ; of  clauses, 
442  ; of  adverbs,  443.  Compar., 
use,  444.  Adj.  separated  from 
noun,  565,  3 and  4.  Position  of 
modifiers  of  adj.,  566;  of  adj.  w. 
gen.,  565,  2. 

Admisceo  w.  dat.,  385,  3;  p.  201, 
foot-note  1. 

Admodum.,  304,  L,  2. 

Admoneo.,  constr.,  374,  2 ; p.  274,  foot- 
note 1. 

Admonishing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of, 
409,  1. ; 410,  I. 

Adolescens.,  compar.,  168,  4. 

Adonic  verse,  628,  I. 

Adopted  son,  how  named,  649,  8. 
Ador.,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  1. 
Adulor  w.  acc.  or  dat.,  p.  202,  foot- 
note 1. 

Adulter.,  deck,  51,  4,  3). 

Adverbial  acc.,  378.  Adverbial  com- 
parison, 170. 

Adverbs,  303  ff.  Numeral  adverbs, 
181.  Compar.,  806.  Adverbs  w. 
nouns,  359,  N.  4;  443,  N.  4;  w. 
dat.,  392 ; w.  gen.,  397, 4.  Adverbs 
as  preps.,  437.  Adverbs  for  adjs., 
443,  N.  3.  Use  of  adverbs,  551  ff‘. 
Position  of  modifiers  of  adverb,  568. 
Adverb  between  prep,  and  case,  569, 

II. ,  3.  -E.  in  adverts,  581,  IV.,  4. 
Adverb  redundant,  636,  III.,  7. 

Adversative  conjuncs.,  310,  3 ; 554, 

III.  Ad  vers,  asyndeton,  p.  370, 
foot-note  1. 

Adversum.,  adversus.,  w.  acc.,  433. 

Ae,  sound,  6 ; 12 ; changed  to  i,  344, 
4,  N.  2 

Aedes.,  sing,  and  plur.,  132. 

Aeger.,  decl.,  150. 

Aegre  fero.,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  2. 
Aeneas ..  deck,  50. 

Aequalis  w dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
AJqui  facere.,  A. 

Aer.,  qiiant.  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  4. 
Aetds,  deck,  58. 

A et/ier^  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  4. 
-aeus,  adjs.  in.,  331. 

Age,  expression  of,  p.  222,  foot-note  4. 
Ages  of  Lat.  literature,  640. 


392 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Age.,  inteij.,  p.  152,  foot-note  4. 

Agent,  abl.  of,  with  d or  388,  2 ; 
415,  I.  Dat.  of,  388. 

Ager^  decl.,  51. 

-aginta,  quant,  of  antepen.,  587, 

_ 111.,  3. 

Agnomen,  649,  2 and  3. 

Agnomination,  637,  XI.,  7. 

Ago  ut.,  498,  II.,  N.  2 ; id  ago  w.  subj., 
p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

-ag6,  nouns  in,  324,  N. ; 327,  4,  X. ; 
d in,  587,  I.,  2. 

Agreeable,  dat.  w.  adjs.  signifying, 
391,  I. 

Agreement,  of  Nouns,  362  If.  Fred, 
noun,  362;  in  gend.,  362,  1.  Ap- 
positive,  363 ; in  gend.,  363,  1.  Of 
adject.,  438  ff. ; w.  clause,  438,  3; 
sy'nesis,  438,  6;  w.  one  noun  for 
another,  438,  7 ; w.  two  or  more 
nouns,  439;  w.  part,  gen.,  397,  3, 
N.  1.  Of  pronouns,  445 ; w.  two 
or  more  antecedents,  445,  3 ; attrac- 
tion, 445,  4 ; synesis,  445,  5 ; w. 
clause,  445,  7.  Of  verbs,  460  If. ; 
synesis,  461  ; w.  appos.  or  pred. 
noun,  462;  w.  compd.  subject,  463. 

AJij  alid.,  312. 

-ai  for  -ag,  49,  2;  d in,  577,  I.,  1,  (1). 

Aio  for  agio.,  p.  19,  foot-note  8 ; posi- 

__tion,  569,  V. 

-ais  in  prop,  names,  d in,  577,  5,  N. ; 

_587,  L,  3. 

-al  final  shortened,  21,  2,  2).  Nouns 
\n-al.  63;  65,  2;  quant,  ofincrem., 
585,  I.,  1.  -Al  m Plautus  for 
580,  111.,  N.  2. 

Alacer.,  decl.,  153,  N.  1 ; superlat. 
wanting,  168,  3. 

Alhus.,  without  compar.,  169,  4. 

Alcaic  verse,  604,  N.  1 ; 628,  VIII. 
and  IX. ; 619,  1.  Alcaic  stanza, 
631,  I. 

Alcmanian  stanza,  631,  XIX. ; 631, 
_ IX. 

Alee.,  dlex.,  quant,  ofincrem.,  585,  III., 

3. 

-alia,  names  of  festivals  in,  136,  3. 

Alicuoi.,  alicunde.,  305. 

Alienus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1 ; 
w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 

Aliqud.,  aliquam,  aliquando,  305. 

Aliquantus,  191. 

Aliqui,  use,  455,  1. 

Aliquis,  190,  2 ; 191 ; use  of,  455. 

Aliquo,  305,  II. 

Aliquot,  191. 

Aliquotiens,  aliquovorsum,  305. 

-alis,  adjs.Jn,  330;  compar.,  168,  2; 
169,.  3.  A in  -diis,  587,  1.,  4. 


Aliud — niliil  aliud  nisi,  nihil  aliua 
Quam.  555,  III.,  1. 

Atius,  aeci.,  151;  w.  abh,  417,  1,  N. 
4.  Use  of  459.  Alius — alium 
w.  pl.  verb,  461,  3. 

Allegory,  637,  11.,  1. 

Alliteration,  637,  XI.,  1. 

Allobrox,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  3. 

Alphabet,  2 ff.  Letters  of,  indecl., 
128,  1. 

Alter,  decl.,  151.  Alter  for  secundus, 
p.  66,  foot-note  4.  Use  of  alter,  459. 
Alter — alterum,  w.  pl.  verb,  461,  3. 

Alteruter,  decl.,  151,  N.  2. 

Alvus,  gend.,  53,  1. 

-am  in  adverbs,  304,  1.,  3,  2). 

Amdns,  decl.,  157. 

Ambiy  amb,  insep.  prep. , 308 ; in 
compds.,  344,  6. 

Ambo,  decl.,  175,  N.  2. 

Amicus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
T in  amicus,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 

Amnis,  decl.,  62j  IV. 

Amphiardldes,  I in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 

Amphora,  648,  III. 

Amplius  without  quam,  417,  1,  N.  2. 

Amyclides,  I in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 

An,  310,  2,  N.;  311,  8;  353.  An  = 
‘whether  not,’  529,  II.,  3,  N.  2; 
— aut,  529,  II.,  3,  N.  3.  ^ in  an, 

579,  3. 

-an,  suffix,  320,  I. 

-ana,  d in,  587,  I.,  5. 

Anacoluthon,  636,  IV.,  6. 

Anacrusis,  618,  N.  3. 

Analysis  of  verbal  endings,  241  ff. 

Anapaest,  597,  N.  1 ; cyclic,  598, 1,  4). 

Anaphora,  636,  III.,  3. 

Anas,  as  in,  581,  V.,  1 ; quant,  of  in- 
crem., 585,  I.,  4,  (2). 

Anastrophe,  636,  V.,  1. 

Ancient  forms  of  pronouns,  184,  5 ; ol 
verbs,  240. 

Anclle,  decl.,  136,  3. 

Androgeos,  decl.,  54. 

-aneus,  d in,  587,  III.,  1. 

Anguis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Anhelitus,  i in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 

Animal,  decl.,  63. 

Animl,  constr.,  399,  111.,  1 ; 410,  V.,  2- 

Anib,  quant,  ofincrem.,  585,  111.,  2. 

Annon,  310,  2,  N. ; 353,  2,  N.  3. 

Answers,  352. 

-ant,  suffix,  320,  I. 

Ante  in  compds.,  344,  5;  in  compds 
w.  dat.,  386.  Ante  w.  acc.,  438; 
433,  I.  ; denoting  interval,  430 
Ante  w.  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  5. 

Allied,  304,  IV.,  N.  2. 

Antecedent,  445,  N. ; omitted,  445,  6. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


393 


Clause  as  anteced.,  445,  7.  Ante- 
ced.  attracted.  445,  9. 

AntecHo  w.  acc.  or  dat.,  p.  202,  foot- 
note 1. 

Ante-classical  period,  640,  I. 

Anteeo  in  synaeresis,  608.  III.,  N.  1 ; 
w.  acc.  or  dat.,  p.  202,  foot- note  1. 

Antehac,^  304,  IV.,  N.  2. 

Antequam,^  311,  1 ; in  temp,  clauses, 
520. 

Anticipation,  prolepsis,  440,  2 ; 636, 

IV.,  3. 

Anticus-,,  I in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 

Antimeria,  636,  IV.,  1. 

-anus,  adjs.  in,  330  ; 331 ; d in,  587, 
l.,5. 

Anxiety,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  III. 

-aon  in  prop,  names,  d in,  577,  5,  N. 

Apage^  interj.,  312,  4. 

Aphaeresis,  635,  1. 

Apis,,  genit,  plur.,  p.  36,  foot-note  3. 

Apocope,  635,  3. 

Apophasis,  637,  XL,  2. 

Aposiopesis,  636,  I.,  3;  637,  XL,  3. 

Apostrophe,  637,  X. 

Apparent  agent,  388. 

Appendix  with  short  increm.,  p.  343, 
loot-note  2. 

Appendix,  634  ff. 

Apposition,  partitive,  364.  Clauses 
m apposition,  501,  III. 

Appositional  genitive,  396,  VI. 

Appositive,  359,  N.  2 ; agreement  of, 
363 ; in  gend.,  363,  1 ; force  of,  363, 
3.  Infin.  as  appos.,  539,  II. 

Apricus,,  I in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 

Aptm  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
Aptus  qui  w.  subj.,  503,  11.,  2. 

Apud  w.  acc.,  433  ; 433, 1. ; designat- 
ing abode,  446,  N.  4. 

ar  final  shortened,  21,  2,  2).  Nouns 
in  «r,  63;  65,  2;  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  1.,  1.  Gend._of  nomis  in  ur, 
dr^  111;  112.  -Ar  in  Plautus  for 
-ar,  580,  III.,  N.  2. 

Arar,  Araris,,  decl.,  62,  111.,  1. 

Arbor ^ quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II. , 3. 

Arced  w.  dat.,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 

Archilochian  verse,  604,  N.  1 ; 628, 
X. ; 616,  N.-  617,  N.  ; 619,  N. ; 
stanza,  631,  XL  and  XII.  ; 631, 
XIV.  and  XV. 

Arcus,,  decL,  117,  1. 

Arenae,,  locat.,  426,  2,  N. 

Aries,,  ^ in,  581,  VL,  1. 

-aris,  adjs.  in,  330;  compar.,  169,  3. 
A in  -aWs,  587,  I.,  6. 

Aristophanic  verse,  628,  II. 

•arium,  nouns  in,  323;  d in,  587, 


-arius,  nouns  in,  324 ; adjs.  in,  330 ; 
d in,  587,  III.,  1. 

Arkangement  of  W ords  and 
Clauses,  559  ff. ; words,  560  ff. ; 
gen.  rules,  560  ff.  ; effect  of  empha- 
sis and  euphony,  561 ; chiasmus, 
562 ; kindi'ed  words,  563  ; w'ords  w. 
com.  relation,  564  ; special  rules, 
565  ff. ; modifiers  of  nouns,  565 ; 
adjs.,  566  ; verbs,  567  ; adverbs,  568  ; 
special  words,  569  ; demon.,  569. 

1.  ; preps.,  569,  II. ; conjuncs.  ana 
relat.,  569,  III.  ; non,,  569,  IV.  ; 
inquam,,  did,,  569,  V. ; voc..  569, 
VI. ; clauses,  570  ff. ; as  suoj.  or 
pred.,  571;  subord.  elements, '572 ; 
periods,  57^ 

Arsis,  600. 

Article,  48,  6. 

Arius,,  decl.,  117,  1,  2);  p.  50,  foot- 
note 1. 

-arus,  d in,  587,  1.,  6. 

Arx,,  decl.,  64. 

Aryan  languages,  638. 

-as  in  genit.,"Decl.  L,  49,  1 Nouns 
in  -as,  Decl.  L,  50;  Decl.  III.,  64, 

2,  3) ; decl.,  79.  Gender  of  nouns 
in  -as,  -as,  105,  106.  -As  in  ad- 
verbs, 304,  L,  3,  2).  -ASj  suffix, 
320, 1.  -As^  adjs.  in,  331.  Quant, 
of  -as,  -as,  580,' 111. ; 581,  V. ; a in 
voc.  of  nouns  in,  581,  111.,  2.  Quant. 

_of  increm.  of  nouns  in  -as,  585,  L,  3. 
As,  646  ; 648,  I. 

Asclepiadean  verse,  628,  IV.  and  V. ; 
631,  IV.-VIIL 

Asking,  construction  w.  verbs  of,  374. 
Asper,  deck,  150,  N. 

Aspergd,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1. 
Aspirate,  3,  II. , 3. 

-assim  in  pcrf.  subj.,  240,  4. 
Assimilation  of  vowels,  25:  of  con- 
sonants, 33 ; 34. 

Assimilis  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 
Assis,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  3. 
-asso  in  fut.  perf.,  240,  4. 
Asvndeton,  636,  I.,  1. 

A^,810,  3;  554,  111.,  2. 

-at,  neut.  stems  in,  58,  2.  -At  in 
Plautus  for  -at,  580,  III.,  N.  2. 
Mat,  interj.,  312,  1. 

-aticus,  d in,  587,  III.,  2. 

-atilis,  quant,  of  pen.,  587,  II. , 5 ; 
_antepen.,  587,  III.,  2. 

-atim,  d in,  587,  L,  7. 

Atque,  310,  1 ; 554,  I. ; meaning  as, 
451,  5;  than,  459,  2;  554,  L,  2,  N 
Que — atque,  554,  I.,  5. 

Atqui,  310,  3;  554,  111.,  2. 

-atrum,  a in,  587,  L,  1. 


394 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


Attamen 554,  III.,  3. 

Attraction,  636,  I V.,  5 ; of  pron.,  445, 
4 and  8 ; of  anteced.,  445,  9. 

Attributive  adj.,  438,  2. 

-atus,  nouns  in,  324 ; d in,  587, 1.,  7. 
interj.,  312,  3. 

Au,  sound,  6 ; 12 ; changed  in  corapds., 
344,  4,  N.  3. 

Auddx^  decl.,  156. 

Audiens  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  3. 

Audio  w.  pred.  noun,  362,  2,  N.  1 ; 
■w.  infin.,  535,  I.,  1. 

Aureus,  646. 

Ausim  for  auserim,,  240,  4. 

Aut,,  310,  2;  554,  II.,  2.  Aut — aut^ 
554,  II.,  N.  rosition  of  aut  in 
poetry,  569,  III.,  N. 

Autem,,  310,  3;  554,  III.,  2 and  4; 
position,  569,  III. 

Authors,  Latin,  640. 

Autonomasia,  637,  III.,  1. 

A uxilium,^  auxilia,,  132. 

Aversion,  gen.  w.  adjs.  of,  399,  I.,  1. 

Avidus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 
p.  315,  foot-note  2;  other  constrs., 
400. 

Avis,,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

-avus,  d in,  587.  I.,  6. 

-ax,  gen.  of  nouns  in,  91 ; verbals  m, 
333  ; w.  ger.,  399^  11.  Quant,  of 
increm.  of  words  m 585,  1.,  4, 
(3). 

Axo  for  egerd,,  240,  4. 

B 

B,  sound,  7,  N. ; changed  to  »,  33,  1 ; 
to  m,  33,  3,  N. ; 34,  3.  Quant,  of 
monosyl.  in,  579,  2. 

Baccar,,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  I.,  4, 

(1). 

Bacchius,  597,  N.  1. 

Becoming,  two  dats.  w.  verbs  of,  390, 

hi.  1,  1). 

Beginning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 1., 
1 . Beginning  of  sentence  emphatic, 
561,  1. 

Being,  two  dats.  w.  verbs  of,  390,  N. 
1,  1).  Being  able,  wont,  accus- 
tomed, constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 1.,  2. 

Bellde^,,  i in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 

Believing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385,  II. 
Infin.  w.  verbs  of,  535,  I.,  1,  (2). 

Bellum,,  decl.,  51,  8.  Belli,,  locat.,  51, 
8 ; 426,  2. 

Belonging  to,  gen.  w.  adjs.  signifying, 
391,  4. 

Bene,,  compar.,  306,  compds.  w. 
dat.,  384*4,  N.  1.  A final  m hene, 
681,  IV.,  4. 


Benefiting,  verbn  of,  w.  dat.,  385,  1. 
-ber,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ; names  ol 
montns  in,  65,  1,  1). 

Bibl,,  i in,  590,  1. 

BUis,,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

-bilis,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ; verbals  in, 
333 ; w.  dat.,  391, 1. : compar.,  168, 1. 
Quant,  of  pen.  of  -oilis,,  587,  II.,  5. 
Bis,,  i in,  579,  3. 

Bonlf acere ,,consulere,,  401,  N.  4. 
Bonus,,  decl.,  148,  compar.,  165, 

Bos,  decl.,  66;  quant,  of  increm.,  581, 
II.,  3. 

Brachylogy,  636,  II. 

Brazen  age,  640,  III.,  1. 

-brum,  nouns  in,  327. 

-bs,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  86. 

Bubae,,  interj.,  312,  1. 

Bucolic  diaeresis,  611,  2 ; bucol.  caesu- 
ra, p.  356,  foot-note  5. 

-bulum,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ; 

nouns  in,  327. 

-bundus.  verbals  in,  333. 

Buris,,  dec!.,  62,  11. 

Buying,  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  405. 

C 

C in  place  of  6^,  2, 1 and  3.  Sound  oi 
c,  7 ; 13.  C changed  to  33,  2 ; 
dropped,  36,  3.  Nouns  in  c,  74. 
Gend.  ,111.  Quant,  of  final  syllables 
in  6‘,  580,  II. , w.  N.  1. 

-cfi;,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Caecus,,  superi,  wanting,  168,  3. 
Caelum,,  plur.,  143,  1. 

Caesura,  caesural  pause,  602. 

Calcar,,  decl.,  63. 

Calendar,  Koman,  641  fi‘. 

Calends,  642,  I.,  1. 

Calix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 

Calling,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accs.,  073. 
Camjoester,,  decl.,  153,  N.  1. 

Cams,,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  3. 

Capitis  w.  verbs,  410,  111.,  N.  2. 
Cappadox,,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IL, 
3. 

Capsb  for  cepero,,  240,  4. 

Caput,,  decl.,  58. 

Carbasus,,  gend.,  53,  1 ; plur.,  142. 
Career,,  carceres,,  132. 

Cardinals,  172 ; 174;  decl.,  175  fifo 
Carmen,,  decl.,  60. 

Carb,,  decl.,  64,  N.  1. 

Cdrus  w.  dat. , p.  205,  foot-note  1 ; w, 
abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Cases,  Etymology  of,  45  fif.  Cases 
alike,  46,  2.  Case  suffixes,  46,  1 ; 
in  Decl.  III.,  57;  67.  Case  end- 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


395 


ings,  47,  N.  3 ; in  Decl.  I.,  48 ; Decl. 
II.,  51,  2,  3);  Decl.  III.,  67;  for  i- 
stems,  62,  I.,  2;  Decl.  IV.,  116; 
Decl.  V.,  120;  pronouns,  184,  1. 
Irregular  case  endings,  Decl.  I.,  49 ; 
Decl.  II.,  52;  Decl.  III.,  67,  N. ; 
Decl.  IV.,  117;  Decl.  V.,  121. 
Cases,  Syntax  of,  362  ff.  General 
view,  365.  Nominat.,  368.  Vocat., 
369.  Accusat.,  370  If.  Dat.,  382  ft*. 
Gen.,  393  ft*.  Abl.,  411  ft.  Cases 
w.  preps.,  432  ft*. 

Castrum castra.,  132. 

Catalectic,  603,  notes  3 and  5. 

Causa.,  p.  221.  foot-note  2. 

Causal  ad  veros,  305,  N.  2,  4) ; con- 
junctions, 310,  5 ; 311,  7 ; 554,  V. ; 
555,  VII.  Causal  clauses,  516 ; 517 ; 
w.  quod,  etc.,  516 ; w.  cum  and  qui., 
517. 

Cause,  gen.  of,  399,  111.,  2 ; abl.,  413 ; 
416.  Cause  expressed  by  particip., 
549,  1. 

Caveo^  constr.,  385,  1.  Cavt  w.  subj. 
for  imperat.,  489,  2) ; w.  ne  omitted, 
499,  2.  ^in  cavt.,  581,  IV.,  3. 

-ce,  appended,  186,  1 and  2. 

Cecidi.,  (juant.  of  pen.,  591,  1. 

Cedo.,  0 in,  581,  II.,  1. 

Celeber .,  celer.,  decl.,  153,  N.  1. 

Celo.^  constr.,  374,  2. 

Celtiber.,  decl.,  51,  4,  3);  quant,  of 
increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 

-cen,  compds.  in,  341,  1. 

Cmseb.,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 
-ceps,  genit,  plur.  of  adjs.  in,  158,  2, 
3) ; compds,  in,  342,  1. 

-cer,  suftix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1, 

Certs.,  ^ in,  581,  VI.,  1. 

Certo  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 
Certus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Ceter.,  ceterus.,  defective,  159,  II. ; 

meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

CUerum.,  310,  3 ; 554,  III.,  2. 

Ch,  sound,  7,  N. ; 13,  1.,  2. 

Changes  in  consonants,  30  ft*. 
Characteristic,  stem-characteristic, 
nouns,  46,  3;  verbs,  201.  Gen.  of 
characteristic,  396, V. ; abl.,  419, 11. ; 
419,  2. 

Chiasmus,  562;  636,  V.,  4. 

Chief  caesura,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 
Choliambus,  622,  4. 

Choosing,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accs.,  373  ; 

w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 

Choree,  p.  350,  foot-note  2. 
Choriambus,  597^  N.  1. 

-cida,  compds.  in,  341,  1. 

Cilix.,  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 


Cingo.,  constr.,  377. 

-cino,  suftix,  p.  156,  foot-note  8. 

-cinus,  adjs.  in,  330,  1. 

-ci5,  nouns  in,  321,  N. 

Circdy  p.  149,  foot-note  2 ; w.  acc., 
433;  433,  1. ; of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot- 
note 5. 

Circiter  w.  acc.,  433;  433,  I. 

Circum.,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  in 
compds.,  344,  5;  compds.  w.  acc., 
372;  w.  two  accs.,  376;  w.  dat., 
386,  2.  Circum  w.  acc.,  433; 
433,  I. 

Circumdo.,  circumfundo.,  constr.,  p. 
198,  foot-note  1. 

Circumlocutions  w.  res.,  genus.,  modus., 
ratio.,  636,  III.,  10. 

Cis  w.  acc.,  433  ; 433,  I. ; i in,  579,  3. 

Citerior.,  compar.,  166. 

Cities,  plur.  in  names  of,  131,  N. 

Cito.,  0 in,  581,  II.,  1. 

Citrd^  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  acc., 
433 ; 433,  I. 

Citum.,  i in,  590,  1. 

Civis^  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Clam  w.  acc.  or  abl.,  437,  3. 

Clans,  Roman,  how  designated,  331, 
N.  2. 

Classical  period,  640,  IT. 

Classification  of  letters,  3;  verbs, 
257  ft. 

Classis.,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Claudus.,  not  compared,  169,  4. 

Clauses,  348,  N.  1 ; as  nouns,  gend., 
42,  N.  Prin.  and  sub.  clauses,  348, 
N.  2.  Clause  as  object,  371,  IV. ; as 
abl.,  abs.,  431,  N.  1 ; as  anteced., 
445,  7.  Object  clauses  of  purp., 
498.  Subst.  clauses  of  pui’p.,  499, 
3 ; of  result,  501.  Restrictive  clauses 
w.  quod.,  503,  1.,  N.  1_  Conditional 
clauses,  513  ; concess.,  514 ft. ; temp., 
518  ft . ; principal,  in  indir.  disc., 
523;  subord.,524.  Indirect  clauses, 
528  ft.  Substantive  clauses,  532  ft*. ; 
540.  Relat.  clauses  supplied  by 
particip.,  549,  4.  Prin.  clauses  sup- 
plied by  particip.,  549,  5.  Arrang, 
of  clauses,  570  ft. 

Clavis.,  decl.,  62,  111. 

Cliens.,  decl.,  64. 

Climax,  637,  VI. 

Close  vowels,  3,  I.,  3. 

Clothing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  377. 

-CO,  sumx,  320,  II. 

Cognate  acc.,  371,  I.  and  II. 

Cognomen,  649. 

Cbgb.,  constr.,  380,  N.  ; p.  274,  foot- 
note 2. 

Coins,  Roman,  646. 


396 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


'Cola,  compels,  in,  341,  1. 

Collecting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  380,  N. 

Collective  nouns,  39,  2,  1) ; w.  plur. 
verb,  461,  1. 

Collis.,  decL,  62,  IV. 

Colloco.,  constr.,  380,  N. 

Colus.,  gend.,  53, 1 ; 118  ; dec!.,  119,  2. 

Com  in  compds. , 344,  5 ; w.  dat. , 386. 

Coming  together,  constr.  w.  verbs  of, 
380,  N. 

Comitium.,  comitia.,  132. 

Command,  dat.  w.  verbs  signifying  to, 
385,  I. ; infin.  after,  535,  II.  Subj. 
of  command,  483  if. 

Commiserescit.,  commiseretur,  constr., 
410,  IV.,  N.  1. 

Common  nouns,  39,  2.  Common  quan- 
tity, 16,  III.  ; 575. 

Communis  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 

Commuto.,  constr.,  422,  N.  2. 

CoMPAKATiVE  conjuncs.,  311,  2;  555, 
II.  Comparat,  degree,  160;  decl., 
154 ; wanting,  167  ; formed  by  ma- 
gis., 170.  Comparat,  w.  gen.,  397, 
3;  w.  abb,  417;  w.  quam.,  417,  1. 
Use,  444.  Comparat,  w.  quam  and 
subj.,  503,  II.,  3.  0 in  merem.  of 

comparat.,  585,  II.,  1. 

Comparative  view  of  conjugations, 
213  ff. 

CoMPAEisoN  of  adjs.,  160  if.;  modes 
of,  161;  terminational,  162;  irreg., 
163.;  defect.,  166;  adverbial,  170; 
of  adverbs,  306.  Use  of  compar., 
444.  Dat.  w.  verbs  of  comparison, 
385,  4,  3). 

Comtes.,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

Compleo.,  constr.,  410,  V.,  1;  p.  225, 
foot-note  3. 

Complex  sentences,  348  ; elements, 
357,  2 ; subject,  359  ; predicate,  361. 

Complures.,  dec!.,  154,  N.  1. 

Compos  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 
-os  in,  581,  VII.,  1 ; quant,  of  in- 
crem.,  585,  II.,  3. 

Composition  of  words,  340  if. 

Compound  Wokds,  313,  N.  2;  pro- 
nunciation, 8,  3 ; p.  8,  foot-note  1 ; 
18,  2.  Compd.  nouns,  decl.,  125  ff. 
Compd.  interrog.,  188,  3 ; nouns, 
341 ; 343  ; adjs.,  342 ; 343  ; verbs, 
221 ; 344.  Compd.  sentences,  349. 
Compds.  of  preps,  w.  acc.,  372;  w. 
two  aces.,  376  ; w.  dat.,  386.  Quant, 
in  compds.,  594.  Compd.  verse,  601, 
N.  2. 

Computation  of  money,  647. 

Concealing,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accs.j  374. 

Concession  expressed  by  particip., 
549,2. 


Concessive  conjunctions,  311^  4 ; 555, 
IV. ; concess.  subj.  of  desire,  484, 
III.  Concess.  clauses,  514  ff. ; posi- 
tion of,  572,  II.,  N. 

Condemning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  410, 
III. 

Condico  w.  gen.,  409,  N.  3. 

Condition  expressed  by  imperat.,  487, 

3 ; by  particip.,  549,  2. 

Conditional  conjuncs.,  311,  3;  555,’ 
III.  Cond.  sentences,  506  ff. ; first 
form,  508 ; sec.  form,  509  ; third 
form,  510 ; combined  forms,  511  ; 

512.  Condit,  clauses  w.  dum.^  etc., 

513.  Condit,  sentences  in  indir. 
disc.,  527.  Position  of  condit, 
clauses,  572,  II.,  N. 

Confido  w.  abl.,  425,  1,  1),  N. 

Conitor.,  constr.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 

Conjugation,  201  if. ; of  sum.,  204. 
First  conj.,  205  if.  ; 223  ff. ; 257  ff.  ; 
second,  207  if. ; 225  if.  ; 261  if.  ; 
e,  in  imperat.,  581,  IV.,  3 ; third,  209 
if. ; 227  ff. ; 269  if. ; fourth,  211  if. ; 
229  if. ; 284  if.  ; Is  in  pres,  indie., 
581,  VIII.,  3 ‘verbs  in  io  of  Conp 
III.,  217.  Periphrastic,  233  n. 
Peculiarities,  235  if.  Comparative 
view,  213.  Irreg.  verbs,  289  if. ; 
defect.,  297  if. ; impers.,  298  if.  In- 
crem.  of  conj.,  583  ; 584 ; quant.,  586. 

Conjunctions,  309;  coord.,  554;  sub- 
ord.,  555.  Conj.  omitted,  554, 1.,  6. 
Place  of  conj.  in  sentence,  569,  III. 

Conor.,  constr.,  498,  II.,  N.  1. 

Conscius  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 
p.  315,  foot-note  2;  other  constrs., 
400.  Conscius  miJil  sum  w.  infin., 
535,  I.,  3. 

Consecutive  conjs.,  311,  6;  555,  VI. 

Consequor.,  constr.,  p.  2y4,  foot-note  2. 

Consimilis  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 

Consonant  nouns,  55  if.  Consonant 
stems,  57  if.  Consonant  verbs,  209. 

Consonants,  3,  II. ; double,  3,  N.  2 ; 
sounds  of,  7 ; 13 ; 15,  2 ; phonetic 
changes  in,  30  if. ; interchanged  w. 
vowels,  28 ; 29 ; assimilated,  33  ; 34 ; 
dissimllated,  35  ; omitted,  36. 

Consors  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Constituo.,  constr.,  498,  I.,  N. ; p.  274, 
foot-note  1. 

Consto  w.  abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Consul.,  decl.,  60. 

Consulo.,  constr.,  374,  2;  385,  1. 

Consultus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Contendo  w.  ^at.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1 ; 
w.  infin.,  498,  II.,  N.  1 ; w.  subj., 
p.  274j  foot-note  2. 

Contention,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  4,  3). 


INDEX  OF  BtTBJECTS, 


397 


Contentus^ . abi.,  420, 4) ; 421,  III. 
Continental  pronunciation  of  Latin, 
15. 

Contingit^  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 
Continuing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 

I. ,  1. 

Contra^  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  acc., 
433 ; 433,  I. 

Contraction  of  vowels,  23 ; in  conju- 
gation, 235.  Quant,  of  syllables  in 
contract.,  576,  I. 

Contrarius  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 
Contro-  in  compels.,  594,  8. 

Convenio^  constr.,  380,  N. 

Convicting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409, 

II.  ; 410,  II. 

Convoco^  constr.,  380,  N. 

Coordinate  conjs.,  309,  1 ; 554. 

Copia^  copiae^  132.  Copia  est  w.  in- 
fin.,  533,  3,  N.  3. 

Copulative  conjs.,  310,  1 ; 554,  I. 
Copulo  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 
Cor^  defective,  133,  5 ; o in,  579,  3. 
Coram^  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  abi., 
434. 

Cornu^  decl.,  116. 

Coronides^  ^ in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 
Corpus^  decl.,  61. 

Correlative  pronouns,  191 ; adverbs, 
305.  Correlat.  compar,  conjunes., 
555,  II.,  1.  Position  of  correlat. 
clauses,  572,  II.,  N. 

Cd^  defective,  133,  5. 

-cosus,  adjs.  in,  328. 

Cotidie^  locat.,  120,  N. 

Countries,  names  of,  gend.,  42,  II.,  2 ; 
constr.,  380,  3. 

Credor^  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 
Crimine^  constr.,  410,  II.,  1. 

-erum,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ; 

nouns  in,  327. 

Cubitus,  648,  IV.,  JST. 

Cuicuimodi^  187,  4. 

Cujds^  cujus ^ 185,  N.  3. 

Cu^smodl^  cujuscumquemodl^  187,  4, 

-cula,  nouns  in,  321 ; u in,  587,  II.,  3. 
-culo,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  8. 
-culum,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ; 

nouns  in,  321 ; 327  ; cu  in,  587,  II.,  3. 
-culus,  nouns  in,  321 ; adjs.  in,  332 ; 

u in  pen.,  587,  II.,  3. 

Cum^  prep.,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  ap- 
pended, 184,  6 ; 187,  2 ; com  in 
compds.,  344,  5.  Cum  w.  abl., 
434 ; 434,  I. ; of  accompaniment, 
419 ; of  manner,  419,  III. ; after 
Idem^  451,  5;  w.  pi.  verb,  461,  4. 
Cum  w.  ger.,  p.  216,  foot-note  1. 
Cum^  quum^  p.  75,  foot-note  1 ; 305, 


IV.;  311,  1 and  4;  p.  151,  foot- 
notes 1 and  4;  311,  7;  w.  perf.  in- 
die., 471^  5 ; w.  plup.  indie.,  472,  2 ; 
introducing  a condition,  507,  3 ; a 
concession,  515,  III. ; 515,  N . 4 ; a 
causal  clause,  517 ; a temp,  clause, 
521.  Cum  w.  infinit.,  524,  1,  2). 
Cum — tum^  554,  I.,  5. 

-cumque,  p.  75,  foot-note  3;  305, 
N.  1. 

Cumulo^  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 
Cunctl  w.  part,  gen.,  397,  3,  N.  4. 
-cundus,  verbals  in,  333. 

Cupidus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3 ; 
p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Cupiens  w.  dat.  of  possessor,  387, 

N.  3. 

Cupio ^ constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1. 
Cura  est  w.  subj.,  p.  274,  foot-note  3. 
Curd^  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
-cus,  adjs.  in,  330 ; 333,  5. 

Cyclic  dactyl,  598,  1,  3) ; anapaest, 
598,  1,  4). 

Cyclops^  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  2. 


D for  t,  32,  N.  1.  D changed  to  L 32 ; 
assimilated  to  7i  or  5,  34,  1 ; to  /,  34, 
2 ; dropped  before  s,  36,  2.  D final 
dropped,  36,  5,  2).  Quant,  of  final 
syllables  in  6?,  579,  2 ; 580,  II. 
d,  -d^,  nouns  in,  322. 

Dactyl,  597,  I. ; cyclic,  598,  1,  3). 

Effect  of  dactyls,  610,  2. 

Dactylic  verse,  603,  Is.  1 ; 614  ff.  ; 

hexameter,  609  ff. 

Ddmma^  g^nd.,  48,  5. 

Danais^  quant,  of  pen.,  p.  345,  foot- 
note 1. 

Danger,  constr.  w.  expressions  of,  498, 

Daps^  dapis^  defective,  133,  3. 

Dare  litteras.  385,  1,  N.  Dare  ope- 
ro.m  w.  subj.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
E in  dedl.,  a in  datum.^  590,  1. 
Daring,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533,  1.,  1. 
Dates,  Ei^.  and  Lat.,  644. 

Dative,  Decl.  I.,  49,  4;  Decl.  III., 
58,  2 ; 66,  2 ; 67,  N.  1 ; 68,  5 ; Decl. 
IV.,  117,  1;  Decl.  V.,  121, 1. 
Dative,  syntax  of,  382  ff.  Dat.  for 
acc.,  380,  4.  Dat.  in  exclamations, 
381,  N.  3,  3) ; w.  verbs,  384  ff. ; w. 
compds. , 386  ; of  possessor,  387  ; of 
agent,  388.  Ethical  dat.,  389.  Two 
dats.,  390.  Dat.  w.  adjs.,  391 ; 399, 

1.,  3,  N.  1 ; 400,  1 ; w.  nouns  and 
adverbs,  392 ; w.  refert  and  inter  est 

408. 1. , 3.  Dat.  of  penalty,  410,  III., 


398 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


N.  1.  Bat.  of  ger.,  542,  II. ; ge- 
rundive, 544,  2.  ^ 

Bative  sing,  in  I,  581,  I.,  2.  E in 
dat..  Bed.  III.,  581,  IV.,  2. 

‘ Baughter,’  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398, 
I.,N.  2.  Names  of  daughters,  649, 4. 

Bay,  Eom.  division  of,  645. 

De  in  compds.  w.  dat.,  386;  w.  abl., 
434,  N.  1.  De  w.  abl.,  434 ; 434, 
I. ; for  genit.,  397,  N.  3.  De  w. 
ger.,  p.  316,  foot-note  1. 

Dea.,  decl.,  49,  4. 

Debeo  w.  pres,  infin.,  537,  1. 

Becay,  phonetic,  p.  12,  foot-note  1. 

Decerno.,  constr.,  498,  I.,  N. ; p.  274, 
foot-note  1. 

Decipio.,  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5. 

Beclarative  sentence,  350;  in  indir. 
disc.,  523,  I. 

Beclaring,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  535,  I. 

Beclension,  46;  first,  48;  sec.,  51* 
third,  55  ; fourth,  116  ; sec.  and 
fourth,  il9 ; fifth,  120 ; compds., 
1^5.  -0  in  Bed.  III.,  581,  II.,  2. 
-E  in  Bed.  I.  and  V.,  581,  IV.,  1. 
Increm.  of  decl.,  582;  584;  quant., 
585. 

Dedoceo.,  constr.,  374,  2. 

Befective  nouns,  122 ; 127,  II. ; 129  fi*.  ; 
adjs.,  159,  II.  Bef.  compar.,  166  ff. 
Bef.  verbs,  297. 

Begree,  adverbs  of,  305,  N.-  2,  3). 

Begrees  of  comparison,  160. 

Deinde.,  in  series,  554,  I.,  N.  2. 

Delecto.,  constr.,  385,  II.,  N.  1. 

Beliberative  subj.,  484,  V.  Belib. 
questions,  523,  II.,  1,  N. 

Delos,  decl.,  54. 

Delpnln.,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  3. 

Bemanding,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  374. 

Bemonstrative  pronouns,  186 ; use 
of,  450  fi“. ; 449,  1.  Bemon.  roots, 
314,  II.  Bemon.  adverbs,  450,  N.  4. 
Bemon.  vr.  infin.,  538,  3.  Position 
of  demon.,  569,  I.  Bemon.  redun- 
dant, 636,  III.,  7. 

Benarius,  646. 

Denique.,  in  series,  554,  I.,  N.  2. 

Benominatives,  335. 

Bental  stems.  Bed.  III.,  58. 

Bentals,  3,  II. ; 3,  N.  1,  I.,  2. 

Bependent  clauses,  348,  N.  2.  Be- 
pend.  questions,  528,  2,  N. 

Beponent  verbs,  195,  2 ; 231 ; 465,  2. 

Bepriving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  414,  I. 

Berivation,  321  ff. ; of  nouns,  321  if. ; 
adjs.,  328  £[*. ; verbs;  335  ff. 

Berivatives,  quant,  in,  593. 

-des,  nouns  in,  322. 

Bescent,  names  of,  322. 


Bescriptive  genit.,  396,  V. ; abl.,  419, 

11.,  N.  Bescrip.  imperfi  in  temp, 
clauses,  518,  N.  1.^ 

Besideratives,  284,  2 ; 338. 

Desino.,  constr..  p.  217,  foot-note  5. 
Besire,  subj.  oi,  483  ff‘. ; for  imperat., 
487j  4. 

Besirmg,  gen.  w.  adjs.  of,  399,  I.,  1 ; 
p.  315,  foot-note  2 ; w.  verbs  of,  410, 
V.,  2.  Subj.  after  verbs  of,  498,  I. ; 
infinit.,  533,  I.,  1 ; 535,  II. 

Desisto.,  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5. 
Deyp~erb  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N.  1 ; w. 

(fat.  or  acc.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 
Bestitute  oh  constr.  w.  adjs.  signify- 
ing, 414,  III. 

Desum.,  synaeresis  in,  608,  III.,  N.  1. 
Desuper  w.  acc.,  437,  1. 

Deterior.,  comparison,  166. 

Deterius.,  comparison.  306,  3. 
Beterminative  compels.,  343,  I. 
Betermining,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 

1. , 1. 

Deterred.,  constr.,  p.  279,  foot-note  2. 
Deus.,  decl;,  51,  6. 

-dex,  compds.  in,  341,  1. 

Dexter.,  decl.,  150,  N.  1);  dextrd., 
constr.,  425,  2. 

Dl^  dis.,  insep.  prep.,  308  ; in  compds., 
344,  6 ; ^ in  dl.,  594,  2. . 

BiaeresiSj  602,  2 ; 608,  IV. 

Diana.  I in,  577,  I.,  3,  (4). 

Biastole,  608,  V. 

Die  for  dice.,  238. 

Dicid.,  defective,  134. 

Bicolon,  p.  352,  foot-note  3. 

Dlcor.,  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 

Dictd  audiens.,  390,  N.  3. 

-dicus,  compds.  in,  342,  1 ; compar., 
164. 

Dldd.,  decl.,  68. 

decl.,  120;  122,  1;  gend.,  123; 
I in  compds.,  594,  7. 

Bifference,  abl.  of,  417,  2 ; 423. 
Biffering,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  2 ; 
385,  4,  2). 

Diferd  w.  dat.,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 
Difficilis^  compar.,  163,  2 ; w.  dat.,  p. 

205,  foot-note  1 ; w.  supine,  547,  1. 
Dignor.,  constr.,  421,  N.  2. 

Dlmus.,  constr.,  421,  III.  ; 421,  N.  3. 
Dlgnus  qul  w.  subj.,  503,  il.,  2. 
Dlgnus  w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Biiambus,  597,  N.  1. 

Bimeter,  603,  N.  2. 

Biminutive  nouns,  321;  adjs.,  332; 
verbs,  339, 

Biphthongs,  4 ; sounds  of,  6 ; 12  ; 15, 
1 ; weakening  of,  23,  N. ; quant, 
of  syllab.  w.  diphth.,  576,  1. ; final 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


399 


diphth.  elided,  608,  I. ; shortened 
in  hiatus,  608,  II.,  N.  3. 

L)ipody,  597,  N.  2. 

Direct  object,  370  ff.  Direct  disc., 
522,  1 ; changed  to  indir.,  530;  in- 
dir.  to  direct,  531. 

Directing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  499,  2. 

Direction,  how  expressed,  384,  3,  1) ; 
385,  4,  1)3  386,  3. 

Dirimo.,  di  m,  594,  2,  N.  1. 

Dls.,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 
dl.,  insep.  prep.,  308 ; in  compels., 
344,  6. 

Disertus.^  di  in,  594,  2,  N.  1. 

Disjunctive  conjunctions,  310,  2 ; 554, 
II.  Disjunct,  questions.  353. 

Dispar.,  constr.,  p.  205,  loot-notes  1 
and  3. 

Displeasing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385,  I. 

Dispondee,  597,  N.  1. 

Dissenting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385,  2. 

Dissentio.,  disside^.,  w.  dat.,  p.  200, 
foot-note  2. 

Dissimilation  of  vowels,  26 ; conso- 
nants^ 35. 

Dissimilis.,  compar.,  163,  2;  constr., 
p.  205,  foot-notes  1,  2,  and  3. 

Dissyllabic  perfects  and  supines, 
quant,  of  pen..  590. 

Distance,  abl.  or,  379,  2;  423,  N.  2. 

Distich,  606,  N. ; elegiac,  615. 

Dlstb  w.  dat.,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 

Distributives,  172,  3;  174;  decl.,  179. 

Ditrochee,  597,  N.  1. 

Diu.,  304,  I.,  1 ; compar.,  306,  4. 

Dlus.,  i in,  577,  I.,  3,  (2). 

Diuturnus.,  superi,  wanting,  168,  3. 

Diversus.,  compar.,  167,  2;  w.  dat.,  p. 
205,  foot-note  1. 

Dives.,  compar.,  165,  N.  2. 

-d5,  nouns  in,  327,  4,  N. ; decl.,  60,  4. 

Do  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2).  See 
also  Dare.  Quant,  of  increm.  of  do., 
586,  I. 

Doceo.,  constr.,  374,  2. 

Doled  acc.,  371,  III.,  N.  1 ; w.  abl., 
p.  221,  foot-note  2 ; w.  in-fin.,  p.  310, 
foot-note  2. 

Domus,  gend.,  118 ; decl.,  119,  1 ; 
constr.,  380,  2^  1) ; 412,  II.,  1 ; 425,  2. 

Donee,  311,  1 ; in  temp,  clauses,  519. 

Dbnb,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1 ; w. 
two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 

Double  consonants,  3,  N.  2.  Double 
constr.  w.  verbs,  384,  2.  Double 
questions,  353. 

Dropping  of  vowels,  27 ; consonants, 
36. 

Dry  measure,  Eom.,  648,  II. 

Dt  changed  to  st,  ss,  or  s,  35,  3. 


Dual  number,  p.  68,  foot-note  1. 
Dubito,  constr.,  505,  I. 

Due  for  duce,  238. 

Ducb  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2. 

Duim  for  dem,  240,  3. 

Dum,  p.  145,  foot-note  1 ; 311, 1 and  3 ; 
555,  I.,  1 ; w.  pres,  indie.,  467,  4; 
w.  subj.  in  conditions,  513, 1.  Dum 
in  temp,  clauses,  519 ; in  indir. 
clauses,  529,  II.,  N.  2. 

Dummodo,  311,  3 ; w.  subj.  in  com 
ditions,  513, 1. 

Duo,  decl.,  175  ; o in,  581,  II.,  1. 
Duration  of  time,  379. 

-dus,  adjs.  in,  333. 

Dv  changed  to  b,  v,  or  d,  32,  N.  2. 

E 

E,  e,  sound,  5 ; 10  fp.  E final  short- 
ened, 21,  2,  3).  Nouns  in  e,  Decl. 
I.,  50  ; in  e,  Decl.  III.,  63  ; 65, 2 ; 70. 
*E,  gend.  of  nouns  in, _Decl.  III., 
111.  -E  in  abl.,  62.  -Em  plur.  of 
Greek  neuters,  68,  6._  ^-nouns, 
120.  jB’-verbs,  207.  ^-sterns,  120, 

1.  -E,  -e,  in  adverbs,  304,  I.,  3; 
304.  II.,  2;  304,  III.,  1.  -E,  -e, 
sufiflx,  320,  II.  E changed  to  i,  344, 
4,  N.  1.  jfe’or  ein  gi,  120,  2 ; 577, 1., 

2,  (1) ; 585,  III.,  1.  E or  e,  final, 
580,  I. ; 580,  III.,  N.  2;  581,  IV.  ; 
in  increm.  of  deck,  585;  585,  III.  ; 
conj.,  586;  586,  II.  E elided  be- 

_fore  consonant,  608,  I.,  N.  2. 

E or  ex,  see  ex. 

Ed,  304,  II.,  3 ; 305,  V. 

-ea  in  prop,  names,  em,  577, 1.,  5,  N. 
Edbus  for  els  = iis,  p.  73,  foot-note  2. 
Eddem,  304,  II.,  3 ; 305,  V. 

Easy,  dat.  w.  adjs.  signifying,  391,  I. 
Ecastdr,  interj.,  p.  152,  foot-note  4. 
Ecce,  312,  1 ; with  demonstratives, 
186,  3;  with  dat.  in  exclamations, 
381,  N.  3,  3). 

Ecquis,  188,  3.  Ecquid,  p.  180,  foot- 
note 1. 

Ecthlipsis,  608,  1.,  N.  4. 

Edim  for  edam,  240,  3. 

-ed5,  nouns  in,  325  ; e in,  587,  I.,  2. 
Edoceo,  constr.,  374,  2. 

Ee  in  synaeresis,  608,  III.,  ISl.  1. 
Effect,  acc.  of,  371,  I.,  2,  2). 

Efficio,  constr. , p.  274,  foot-note  2 ; 
501,  II.,  1. 

Effigies,  deck,  122,  2. 

Effort,  subj.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  II. 
Egenus,  compared,  164,  *1 ; w.  gen., 
p.  210,  foot-note  3 ; p.  219,  foot- 
note 4. 


400 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


constr.,  410,  ^V.,  1. 

Ego.^  decl.,  184.  /in  581,  I.,  2. 

0 in  ego.,  581,  II.,  1. 

Wiem.,  inter].,  312,  1. 

inter]'.,  312,  3;  w.  acc.,  381,  N. 
2;  ein,  57Y,  I.,  2,  (3). 

Eho.,  ehodum.,  312,  5 ; o in,  581,  II.,  1. 
Ei^  iiiterj.,  312,  3 ; w.  dat.,  381,  N.  3, 
3). 

Ei,  pronunciation  as  diphthong,  6,  1 ; 
12,  1 ; e or  e in  li,  120,  2;  577,  I., 
2,  (1);  585,  III.,  1.  Ei  in  synae- 
• resis,  608,  III.,  N.  1. 

-eis,  e in,  587,  I.,  3. 

-eius,  e in,  577,  1.,  2,  (2). 

^'a,  312,  2 and  6 ; a in,  581,  III.,  3. 
Ejusmodi.,  186,  4,  N. 

-ela,  e in,  587,  I.,  4. 

Elegiac  Distich,  615. 

Elements  of  sentences,  356  ff. 

-elis,  e in,  587,  1.,  4. 

Elision.,  608,  I. 

-ella,  nouns  in,  321,  4. 

Ellam  for  en  illam.,  186,  3. 

Ellipsis,  636,  I. 

-ellum,  nouns  in,  321,  4. 

Ellum  for  en  ilium.,  186,  3. 

-ellus  in  nouns,  321,  4;  adjs.,  332, 
_N.  1. 

Eluvies.,  defective,  122,  3. 

-em  in  acc.,  62. 

Emotion,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III. ; 

410,  V.,  2;  535,  III. 

Emphasis  in  arrang.  of  words,  561. 
Emphatic  forms  of  pronouns,  184,  3 ; 

185,  N.  2.  Emphatic  adverbial 
^phrases,  305,  N.  4. 

En.,  312,  1 ; w.  demonstratives,  186, 
3 ; in  exclamations,  381,  N.  3,  3). 
-en,  suffix,  320,  II. ; nouns  in,  327. 

Quant,  of  increm.  of  nouns  in  -en., 
_585,  III.,  2. 

-ena,  e in,  587,  I.,  5. 

Enallage,  636,  IV. 

Enclitics,  accent,  18,  2,  1) ; quant., 

579. 1.,  1. 

End,  dat.  of,  384,  1,  3).  End  of  sen- 
tence emphatic,  561,  II. 
Endeavoring,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  498, 

11.,  N.  1. 

Ending,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533,1.,  1. 
Endings  of  genitive,  47 ; of  cases, 
Decl.  I.,  48-  49;  Decl.  II.,  51,  2, 
3);  52;  Decl.  III.,  62,  I.,  2;  67; 
Decl.  IV.,  116  ; 117  ; Decl.  V.,  120 ; 
121;  in  compar.,  162;  conj.,  213- 
216. 

Endo.,  0 in,  581,  II. j 1. 

l^glish  pronunciation  of  Latin,  9 ff. 

■eni,  e in,  587,  I.,  8. 


Enim.,  310,  5;  554,  V.,  3;  position, 
_569,  III. 

Enitor.,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
l^ineasyllabic  verse,  619,  1. 

-ensis,  adjs.  in,  330 ; 331. 

-ent,  suffix,  320,  II. 

-entia,  -entio,  suffixes,  p.  155,  foot- 
note 9. 

-entior,  -entissimus,  in  compar., 
164. 

-ento,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  9. 
Enumerative  asyndeton,  p.  370,  foot- 
_note  1. 

-enus,  e in,  587,  I.,  5. 

Ed.  ire.,  w.  sup.jn  -wm,  546,  2 ; iri  w. 
do.,  546,  3.  /in  iham.,  ibd,  etc.,  586, 

III.,  4.  /in  itum,  590,  1. 

Ed,  adverb,  304,  II.,  3,  N . ; 305,  II. ; 
554,  IV.,  1;  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot- 
note 3. 

Eddem,  305,  II. 

Epenthesis,  635,  4. 

J^hesus,  decl.,  51,  8. 

Epicene  nouns,  43,  3. 

Epiphora,  636,  III.,  4. 

Epitome,  decl.,  50. 

Epizeuxis,  636,  III.,  5. 

-eps,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  88. 

Epulum,  epulae,  143,  3. 

Equester,  decl.,  153,  N.  1. 

Equivalents,  metrical,  598. 

-er,  nouns  in,  gend.,  53;  99;  103; 
decl.,  51,  4;  60,  3;  adjs.  in,  decl., 
62,  IV.,  N.  1 ; 150.  N.';  153,  N.  2; 
compar.,  163,  1.  Quant,  of  increm. 
_of  nouns  in  -er,  585,  III. , 4. 

-ere  for  erunt,  236. 

Ergd,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  acc., 
433  ; 433, 1. ; after  adjs.,  391,  II.,  1 ; 
for  gen.,  396,  III.,  N.  1. 

Ergd,  310,  4;  p.  151,  foot-note  1 ; w. 
gen.,  398,  5. 

-erunt  for  -erunt,  236,  N. ; 586,  II.,  4. 
Es  attached  to  preceding  word,  27,  N. ; 

e in,  579,  3 ; in  compds.,  581,  VI.,  2. 
-es,  -es,  suffixes,  320,  II.  Nouns  in 
-65,  327;  decl.,  65,  1;  80;  120; 
quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  4; 
gend.,  99;  104;  105;  109;  120. 
Decl.  of  nouns  in  -es,  81 ; gend. , 
99  ; 104.  Es  or  -es  final,  580,  III. ; 

. 581,  VI.  A iii  voc.  of  Greek  nouns 
in  -es,  p.  341,  foot-note  1. 

-esimus,  e in,  587,  III.,  3. 

Esse  omitted,  534,  N. 

^sential  elements  of  sentences,  357, 1. 
-esso,  -essim,  in  fut.  perf.  and 
perf.  subj.,  240,  4. 

-esso,  verbs  in,  336,  N.  2. 

Est  drops  initial,  27,  N.  Est  ut,  498. 


mnEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


401 


II.,  N.  2.  Est,,  ii^ers.,  constr.,  p. 
276,  foot-note  2.  Est  at  end  of  line, 
613,  N.  3. 

-ester,  -estris,  adjs.  in,  330, 1. 

310,  1 ; 554,  1. ; meaning  «5,  451, 
5;  than,,  459,  2.  Et—et,,  et—que^ 
que — neque  (nec) — et,,  et — neque 
(nec),  554,  I.,  5.  Et  in  poetry, 
position,  569,  III.,  N.  Preps,  re- 
peated w.  et—et,,  636,  III.,  6. 

-et  in  Plautns  for  -et,,  580,  III.,  N.  2. 
-eta,  e in,  587,  1.,  7. 

-etas,  e in,  587,  II.,  4. 

Etenim,,  310,  5 ; 554,  V.,  2. 

Ethical  dat.,  389. 

Etiam,,  310,  1 ; 554,  I.,  2,  4,  and  5. 
Etiamsi,,  etsl,,  311,4;  in  concessions, 
515,  II.  Etsl  = ‘ yet,’  etc.,  515,  N.  2. 
-etum,  nouns  in,  323  ; e in,  587,  1.,  7. 
-etus,  e in,  587,  I.,  7. 

Etymology,  37-344.  Figures  of  ety- 
mol.,  634,  N. ; 635. 

Eu,  sound,  6,  1 ; 12. 

Euae,,  interj.,  312,  2 and  6. 

E'lmoe,,  interj.,  312,  2. 

Euphemism,  637,  XI.,  4. 

Euphony  in  arrang.  of  words,  561. _ 
-eus,  adjs.  in,  329 ; -eus^  331.  -Eus 
_ in  prop,  nouns,  e in,  577,  5,  N. 
Evenit,,  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 
Evoe,,  interj.,  312,  2. 

Ex,,  e,  in  compds.,  344,  5;  w.  dat., 
386,  2;  w.  abl.,  434,  N.  1.  Ex  w. 
abl.  for  part,  gen.,  397,  N.  3.  Ex,, 
e,  w.  abl.,  434;  434,  1.  ex^  434, 
N,  2.  Ex,,  e,  w.  ger.,  p.  316,  foot- 
note 1. 

-ex,  -ex,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  92;  93. 

Compds.  in  -ex,,  341,  1. 

Exadversum,  exadversus,  w.  acc.,  433. 
Exanimus,  exanimis,  159,  III. 
Exchanging,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  422, 
N.  2. 

Exclamatory  sentences,  355 ; acc.  in, 
381 ; voc.,  nom.,  dat.  in,  381,  N.  3; 
infin.  in,  539,  III. 

Existimo,  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 
Exonerd,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 
Exos,  -os  in,  581,  VII.,  1. 

Expedio,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 
Expers  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  loot-note  3. 
Explicative  asyndeton,  p.  370,  foot- 
note 1. 

Exposed  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 
Exsequias,  acc.  of  limit,  380,  2,  3). 
Exsolvd,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 
Exsors  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Extempld,  304,  II.,  1,  N. 

Extent  of  space,  acc.  of,  379. 

External  object,  371, 1.,  1. 

2t 


Exterus,  compar.,  163,  3. 

Extra,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  acc., 
433 ; 433,  I. 

Extremus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

Exud,  constr.,  377  ; p.  198,  foot-note 
1 ; p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

F 

Fac  for  face,  238.  Fac  ne  w.  subj.  in 
prohibitions,  489,  2).  A in  fac, 
579,  3. 

Facies,  decl.,  122,  2. 

Facilis,  compar.,  163,  2;  w.  dat.,  p. 

205,  foot-note  1 ; w.  supine,  547,  1. 
Facid,  accent  of  compds.,  18,  2,  2). 
Facid  omitted,  368,  3,  N.  1.  Facid 
w.  dat.,  385,  3 * w.  pred.  gen.,  403  ; 
w.  abl.,  415,  III.,  N.  1.  Facid  ut, 
498,  II.,  N.  2.  Facw  w.  subp,  p. 
274,  foot-note  2 ; 499,  2 ; 501,  tl.,  1. 
E before  f in  compds. , 594,  6. 
-facto,  verbs  in,  344,  3. 

Facultas,  facultates,  132. 

Falsus,  compar.,  167,  2. 

Fama  fert  w.  infin.,  535,  I.,  3. 

Fames,  abl.  farne,  137,  2. 

Familia,  genitive,  49,  1.  FamiUd, 
constr.,  415,* II.,  N. 

Far,  decl.,  63,  2,  1ST. ; 133,  N. 

Fas,  defect.,  134;  w.  supine,  547,  1. 
Fastldidsus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot- 
, note  3.' 

"^Xaux,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4. 
Favorite  vowel,  24. 

Fax,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  I.,  4,  (3). 
Faxd,faxim,  for fecero, fecerim,  240, 4. 
Fearing,  constr.  w.  ven)S  of,  498,  III. 
Fehris,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Feeling,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III. ; 

410,  V.,  2 ; 535,  III. 

Feet  in  versification,  597. 

Fel,  defective,  133,  4,  N. 

F~ellx,  decl.,  156. 

Feminine,  42,11.  Fern,  caesura,  611 , N . 
Fer  for  fere,  238  ; e in,  579,  3. 

-fer,  compds.  in,  342,  1 ; decl.,  51,  4, 
2) ; adjs.  in,  150,  3),  N. 

Fere,ferme,  e in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Ferd  and  compds.,  increm.  of,  586,  1. 
Feror,  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 
Fertilis  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Ferus,  not  compared,  169,  4. 

Festivals,  plur.  in  names  of,  explained, 
131,  N.  ; plur.  in  -alia,  decl.,  136,  3. 
-fex,  compds.  in,  341,  1. 

-fico,  verbs  in,  344,  3. 

-ficus,  adjs.  in,-342, 1 ; compar.,  164 
Fidelis  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
Fidi,  i in,  590,  1. 


402 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Fldo  w.  abl.,  425,  1,  1),  N. 

Fifth  decl . , 1 20  ff . ; e final  in, 581,  IV. ,1. 
Figures  of  prosody,  608.  Fig.  of 
speech,  634  ff. ; of  etymology,  634, 
IN . ; 635 ; of  syntax,  634,  N. ; 636  ; 
of  rhetoric,  634,  N. ; 637. 

Filia^  decl.,  49,  4. 

Filix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  243,  foot- 
note 2. 

Filling,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  p.  225, 
foot-note  3. 

Final  conjunctions,  311,  5 ; 555,  V. 
Final  vowels  and  syllables,  quant, 
of,  580  ; 581.  Fin.  syl.  of  verse,  605. 
Fin.  syl.  elided,  608,  I.  Fin.  long 
vowel  or  diphthong  shortened  in 
hiatus,  608,  II.,  N.  3. 

Finis^  decl.,  62,  IV.  ; singular  and 
plur.,  132. 

Finite  verb,  199,  N. 

Finitimus^  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes 
1 and  3. 

Flo  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  1);  w. 
abl.,  415,  III.,  N.  1.  Fit^  constr., 
p.  276,  foot-note  2.  I or  i in  fld^ 

577. 1.,  3,  (1).  ^before /in  compds., 
594,  6. 

First  decl.,  48  fi". ; g final  in,  581,  IV.,  1. 

First  conjugat. , 205  fl’. ; 223  fi*. ; 257  ff. 
Flagito  w.  two  accs.,  374,  2. 

Flood,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  3. 
decl.,  61. 

Following,  constr.  w.  verbs*  of,  501, 

1.. 1. 

Foot,  caesura  of,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 

Koman  foot,  648,  IV. 

‘ For,’  how  translated,  384,  3. 

Fords^  304,  I.,  1. 

Fore  ut^  537,  3. 

Foreign  words  indecL,  128,  2. 
Forgetting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  407. 
Forls.,  I in,  581,  VIII.,  1. 

Formation  of  stems  of  verbs,  249  if.  ; 

of  words,  313  fi*. ; of  nouns,  321  ff. 
Fornix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 

Fors.,  defective,  134. 

Forsitan.^  304,  IV.,  N.  2;  w.  subj.,  p. 
267,  foot-note  1. 

Fortuitus.^  I in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 
Fortuna.,  fortunae^  132. 

Fourth  decl. , 11 6 ff:  Fourth  conjugat. , 
211  ff. ; 229  ff. ; 284  ff. 

Fractions,  174,  1. 

Fraudo.,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 
Fraus.,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4. 

Free  from,  constr.  w.  adjs.  signify- 
ing, 414,  III. 

Frenum.,  ^\.  freni.,  frena.,  143,  2. 
Frequentativos,  336. 


Fretus  w.  abl.,  425,  1,  1),  N. 

Fricatives,  3,  II.,  4. 

Friendly,  constr.  w.  Hdjs.  signifying, 
391,  I.  and  II. 

Fructus.,  decl.,  116. 

Frugi.,  indeclin.,  159,  I.  ; compar., 
165,  N.  2. 

Fruor.,  constr.,  421,  I.;  421,  N.  4; 
gerundive  of,  544,  2,  N.  5. 

Frux.,  defective,  133,  3 ; quant,  of 
increm.,  535,  V.,  2. 

Fuam  for  sim.,  204,  2. 

Fulness,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  399,  I.,  3. 

Fungor.,  constr.,  421,  I.  ; 421,  N.  4; 
gerundive  of,  544,  2,  N.  5. 

Fur.,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  V.,  2. 

Furnishing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  p. 
225,  foot-note  3. 

Future,  197;  222.  Fut.  indic.,  470; 
for  imperat.,  487, 4.  Fut.  in  condit., 
511,  1,  N.  1 ; in  teu^.  clauses,  p. 
293,  foot-note  2.  Fut.  in  subj., 
479 ; 481 ; 496.  Fut.  imperat.,  487, 
2.  - Fut.  infin.,  537  ; periphrast., 
537,  3.  Fut.  particip.,  550. 

Future  Perfect,  197,  ll.  ; 222,  II. ; 
473;  in  subj.,  496 ; in  indir.  disc.^, 
525,  2 ; in  infinit.,  537,  3,  N.  2.  -Is 
in  fut.  perf.,  581,  VIII.,  5. 

Futurum  esse  ut.,  537,  3.  Futurum 
sit.,  esset.,  ut.,  p.  272,  foot-note  2. 

G 

G formed  from  ^7,  2,  2 ; sound,  7 ; 13 ; 
changed  to  u,  33,  1 ; assimilated  to 
m,  34,  3 ; dropped,  36,  3. 

Gaudeo.,  constr.,  p.  221,  foot-note  2-, 
p.  310,  foot-note  2. 

Gdvlsus.,  I in,  586,  III.,  2. 

Gemo  w.  acc..,  371,  III.,  N. 

Gems,  gend.  of  names  of,  53,  1. 

Gender.  41  ff. ; Decl.  I.,  48 ; Decl.  II., 
53;  Dccl.  III.,  99-115;  Decl.  IV., 
118.  Decl.  V.,  123;  general  table, 
124. 

Gener.,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

General  relatives,  p.  75,  foot-note  3. 
Gen.  rel.  adverbs,  305,  N.  1.  Gen. 
subject,  460,  1,  N.  2.  Gen.  truths, 
467,  II. ; in  conditions,  508,  5 ; 511, 
1.  Gen.  negat.,  553,  1 and  2. 

Genere.,  constr.,  415,  II.,  N. 

Genitive,  endings  of,  47  ; Decl.  I.,  as 
for  ae,  um  for  d^rum.,  49 ; Decl.  II., 
I for  il.,  51,  5 ; um  for  brum.,  52,  3 ; 
bn  for  brum.,  54,  N.  1 ; Decl.  III., 
um  or  ium.  p.  36,  foot-notes  3 and 
4;  p.  38,  foot-note  2;  p.  40,  foot- 
note 3 ; yos.,  ys.,  68,  2 ; bn.,  68,  4 ; 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


403 


Deci,  IV.,  uos.,  for  us^  117 ; 
Decl.  V.,  1,  for  121.  Gen. 
in  adjs.,  158,  2.  -t/s  in  gen.,  581, 
IX.,  2. 

Genitive,  syntax,  393  ft. ; how  ren- 
dered, 393,  X.  Gen.  w.  possessives, 
363,  4,  1);  w.  nouns,  395 ; varie- 
ties, 396  ; in  special  constructions, 

398  ; 406  If. ; w.  adjs.,  391,  II.,  4 ; 

399  ; w.  verbs,  401  ff.  Fred,  gen., 
401  ff. ; of  price,  404 ; 405.  Acc. 
and  gen.,  409.  Gen.  w.  adverbs, 
397,  4.  Gen.  of  ger.,  542,  1.  Posi- 
tion of  gen.  w.  adj.,  565,  2 ; between 
prep,  and  case,  569,  11.,  3. 

Genitus  w.  abl.,  415,  11. 

Gentes.,  Eoman,  how  designated,  331, 
N.  2. 

Gentile  nouns,  331,  N.  1. 

Genus.,  circumlocutions  w.,  636,  III., 

10. 

-ger,  compds.  in,  342,  1;  decl.,  51, 
4,  2);  adjs.,  150,  N. 

Gerund,  200,  II. ; endings,  248.  Ger- 
und in  sequence  of  tenses,  495,  IV. 
Syntax  of  gerund,  541  ; 542.  Ger. 
w.  pass,  meaning,  541,  N.  Cases 
of  ger.,  542.  Ger.  w.  gen.,  mel., 
etc.,  542,  I.,  N.  1 ; denoting  pur- 
pose, 542,  I.,  N.  2:  542,  111.,  JSl.  2. 

Gerundive,  200,  IV.  ; syntax,  543. 
Gerund,  constr.,  543,  N. ; 544;  de- 
noting purpose,  544,  2,  N.  2;  w. 
officim  names,  544,  2,  N.  3 ; after 
comparat.,  544,  2,  JN.  4. 

Gigno  w.  genul.,  genitum.,  592,  2. 

Giving,  verbs  of,  w.  two  dats.,  390, 
N.  1,  2). 

Glades.,  decl.,  122,  3. 

Gils.,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  quant, 
of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

Glyconie  verse,  604,  N.  1 ; 628,  111. 
and  VII. ; 631,  IV. -VI. 

Gn  lengthens  preceding  vowel,  16,  N.  2. 

Gnarus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 
p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Gnpmic  perfect,  471,  5. 

• g5,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  60,  4. 

Going,  verbs  of,  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N. 

Golden  age,  640,  II.,  1. 

Gradlis.,  compar.,  163,  2. 

Gratia.,  gratiae.,  132. 

Gratis.,^  I in,  581,  VIll.,  1. 

Grdt Vitus.,  i in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 

Gratus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1, 

Graviter  fero.,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot- 
note 2. 

Greater  Ionic,  597,  N.  1 ; Archilo- 
chian,  628,  X.;  616,  N. ; 619,  N. ; 


Asclepiadean,  628,  V.  ; Sapphic, 
628,  VII. ; Alcaic,  628,  IX. 

Greek  Nouns,  Decl.  1^  50 ; Decl.  II., 
54;  Decl.  III.,  68.  Long  vowels  in 
Greek  nouns,  577,  5.  7,  i^  in  dat. 
and  voc.,  581,  I. , 2.  -A  in  voc., 
581,  III.,  2.  -E  in  plur.,  581,  IV., 
1.  -As  in  acc.,  581,  V.,  2.  -Es  in 
Greek  words,  581,  VI.,  3;  -os,  581, 
VII.,  2;  581,  Ia.,  3.  A in 

increm.  of  nouns  in  a and  as,  585, 
I.,  3.  0 in  increm.,  585,  11.,  5;  e 

in  words  in  -en.,  585,  III.,  2 ; in  fes 
and-^/’,  585,  111.,  4.  Quant,  of  in- 
crem. of  words  m -«.r,  585,  I.,  4,  (3). 
I in  increm.,  585,  IV.,  3. 

Grimm’s  law,  638,  N.  2. 

Griis.,  deck,  66,  2. 

Gryps,  deck,  p.  38,  foot-note  3. 

Guilt,  adjs.  on  w.  genit.,  399,  I.,  3. 

Gutturals,  3,  II. ; before  s,  30.  Gut- 
tural stems,  59. 

H 

II  changed  to  c,  33, 1,  N.  1 ; following 
other  consonants,  does  not  lengthen 
preceding  syllable,  576,  1,  N.  1. 
Syllable  before  h short,  577. 

Hahed,  meaning,  p.  202,  foot-note  3 ; 
w.  tv/o  aces.,  373,  1,  N.  1 ; w.  perf. 
part.,  388,  1,  N. ; w.  two  dats.,  390, 
N.  1,  2). 

Hdc,  304,  II.,  3;  305,  V. 

Eadria,  gend.,  48,  5. 

Haec  fox  hae,  p.  72,  foot-note  7. 

Halitus.^  i in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 

H^pening,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  501, 

Hand,  use,  552. 

Eda,  interj.,  312,  6 ; a in,  581,  111.,  3. 

T^w.interj.,312, 1:  w.  dat., 381,  N.  3,3. 

Hendiadys,  636,  III.,  2. 

Eq>ar.  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 1.,  4, 1. 

Hephtnemimeral  caesura,  p.  356,  foot- 
note 4. 

HephthemimeriSj  597,  N.  2. 

Eeres,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 

Heroic  verse,  604,  N.  2. 

Eeros,  deck,  68. 

Heteroclites,  127  ; 135  ff.  ; adjs.,  159^ 

Heterogeneous  nouns,  127 ; 141  ff. 

Eeu,  interj.,  312,  3 ; w.  acc.,  381,  N.  2. 
Heu  in  hiatus,  608,  II.,  1. 

Eeus,  interj.,  312,  5. 

Hexameter,  603,  notes  2 and  6 ; 609  ft 

Hiatus,  608,  II. 

Eiher,  deck,  51,  4,  3);  quant,  of  in- 
crem., 585,  111.,  3. 


404 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Bic^  186;  191 ; use,  450;  f in,  579,  3.  0 
in  hbc.  579,  3.  Hoc  redundant,  636, 
III.,  7. 

Hlc^  304,  III.,  2 ; 305,  1. ; w.  gen.,  p. 

209,  foot-note  3. 

Hilarus^  hilaris^  159,  III. 

Hinc^  305,  111. 

Hindering,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  505,  II. 
Historical  tenses,  1 98 ; hist,  present, 
467,  HI. ; in  temp,  clauses,  518,  N. 
1 ; hist,  perfect,  198,  1 ; 197,  N.  1 ; 
471,  II.  Hist,  tenses  in  sequence, 
491  ff.  Hist,  infin.,  536,  1. 

Hoc,  304,  II.,  3,  N. 

Hodie^  120,  H. ; 304,  II.,  1 ; e in,  p. 

341,  foot-note  2 ; o in,  594,  10. 
Honestus  w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Horace,  logaoedic  verses  in,  628 ; ver- 
sification, 630  fi‘. ; lyric  metres,  631 ; 
index,  632. 

Horreo  w.  acc.,  371,  111.,  N. 

Horsum^  305,  II. 

Hortative  subj.,  484,  II. 

Hortor^  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 
Hortus^  hortl^  132. 

Hospitus^  i in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 
Hostile,  constr.  v/.  adjs.  signifying, 
391,  II.,  1. 

Hostis^  decl.,  62. 

Hours,  Koman,  645 ; 645,  2. 

H S,  signification,  647,  3. 

Huc^  304,  II.,  3,  N. ; 305,  II. ; w.  gen., 
p.  209,  foot-note  3. 

Hujusmodi^  186,  4,  N. 

Humilis^  compar.,  163,  2. 

Humus^  gend.,  53,  1 ; huml.  locat., 
426,  2. 

‘Husband,’  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398, 
1,  N.  2. 

Hydrops^  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  2. 
Hypallage,  636,  IV.,  2. 

Hyperbaton,  636,  V. 

Hyperbole,  637,  Vl. 

' Hypermetrical,  603,  N.  3. 
Hypothetical,  see  ConditionaL 
Hysteron  proteron,  636,  V.,  2. 


I 

I for  e/,  p.  2,  foot-note  1.  /,  f,  sound, 

5 ; 10  ff.  /final  shortened,  21,  2, 
8).  1 interchanged  with  y,  28 ; 

dropped,  36,  4.  / for  i%  and  ie^ 
51,  5.  /-nouns.  55;  verbs,  211. 
Stems  in  62  n.  ; origin  of,  p.  35, 
foot-note  3.  Nouns  in  71 ; gend., 
111.  -/in  abb,  62;  for  H,  121,  1 ; 
in  adverbs,  304,  11.,  2;  304,  111.,  1. 
7,  or  % final,  580,  I. ; 581,  1. ; in 


increments  of  decl.,  585;  585,  IV.; 
conj.,  586  ; 586,  111.  /as  conso- 
nant, 608,  III.,  N. '2. 

-ia,  suffix,  320^  11.  Nouns  in  -ia, 
325  ; -ia  and  les^  138. 

-ia  in  prop,  names,  I in,  577,  5,  N. 
-iacus,  adjs.  in,  331 ; a in,  587,  II.,  2. 
-iades,  a in,  587,  II.,  1. 
lambic  verse,  603,  N.  1 ; 621  If. ; stan- 
za, 631,  XVI. 

Iambus,  597,  II. ; irrational,  598,  1,  2X 
-ianus,  adjs.  in,  331.  ^ 

-ibam  for  -ieham^  240,  1 . “ 

Iber^  decl.,  51,  4,  3);  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  III.,  3. 

/M,  304,  HI.,  2 ; 305,  I.  and  1 V. ; I in, 

581. 1.,  2 ; quant,  of  ult.  in  compds., 
594^  9. 

-ibilis,  quant,  of  antepen.,  587,  IV.,  1. 
-Sbo,  -ibor,  for  Aam^  -iar^  240,  2. 
Ibus^  for  eis=iis^  P-  73,  foot-note  2. 
-icius,  adjs.  in,  329. 

Ictus,  599  ; place  in  hexam.,  612. 
-icus,  adjs.  in,  330;  331;  compar., 
169,  3.  */in  icus^  687,  H.,  2. 

-icus,  adjs.  in,  335,  5. 

Id  ago  w!  subj.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

Id  redundant,  636,  111.,  7. 

Idcirco^  554,  IV.,  2. 

Idem^  decl.,  186,  VI. ; w.  dat.,  391, 
N.  1.  Use  of  i/m,  451. 

Ideo^  554,  IV.,  2. 

-ides  or  -ides,  in  patronymics,  587, 

11.,  1. 

Ides,  j)42,  I.,  3. 

-i  d 6,  i in,  587,  I.,  2. 

Idoneus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Idoneus  qu/iw,  subj.,  503,  II.,  2. 
Idus^  gend.,  118. 

-idus,  i in,  587,  H.,  2. 

-ie,  suffix,  320,  II. 

-iensis,  adjs.  in,  331. 

-ier  for  i in  intinit.,  240,  6. 

-ies,  nouns  in,  325,  N.  1 ; 327 ; -ie? 
and  -ia jlBS, 

-iginti,  quant,  of  antepen.,  587,  III., 

3. 

Igitur^  310,4;  554,  IV.,  3;  position. 
_569,  111. 

Ignarus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

^nis^  decl.,  62. 

Ignotus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
-ig5,  nouns  in,  324,  N. ; 327,  4,  N. ; 
I in,  587,  L,  2. 

-ile,  nouns  in,  323 ; I in,  587,  I.,  4. 
lUco^  304,  II.,  1,  N. ; o in,  581,  II.,  1. 
Ilion^  decl.,  54. 

-ills,  compar,  of  adjs.  in,  163,  2;  168 
1.  I 'm  -ilis,  58t  H.,  5. 


IXDEX  OF  SUBJECI  S. 


405 


His.  adjs.  in,  S30;  compar.,  169,  3. 
/ in  587,  II.,  N.  1. 
ilia.  nouns  in,  321.  4. 

[Uac^  305, 

Illative  conjs.,  310,  4 ; 554,  IV. 

IIU^  186;  191;  use,  450;  position, 
569,  I.,  1.  lUud  redundant,  636, 
m.,  7. 

rUXc^  dec!.,  166,  2. 
mie,  304,  UI^  2;  305,  I. 
lUinc^  305,  III. 

-illo.  verbs  in,  339. 

lU/j^  iUoc^  iUUe^  3<>4,  II.,  3,  N.  ; 

305,  II. 

lUfud/j^  con<tr.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 
-illiis.  -ilium,  nouns  in,  321,  4; 
adjs.,  332,  N.  1. 

-im*m  dcc.,  62;  for  -am  or  -em  in 
pres,  subj.,  240,  3.  Adverbs  in 
p.  144,  foot-note  3. 

ImheciilUy  compar.,  163,  2. 

Imber ^ decl.,  62,  2^.  2;  65,  1,  2). 
Imbm^  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 
Immemor  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note 
3;_quant.  ofincrem.,  585,  11.,  3. 
-imouia.  nouns  in,  325;  o in,  587, 
ID.,  4. 

-imonium.  nouns  in,  324 ; b in,  587, 

m..  4. 

Impeaimerdum^  impedimenta^  132. 
ImpeiVb^  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
Luperattve,  196,  111.  Syntax,  487  ff. 
Imperat,  in  prohibitions,  488  fi. ; in 
inmr.  disc.,  523,  111.  Imperat,  sen- 
tencesL  354.  Imperat,  subi.,  484, 
IV.  E in  imperat.,  Conj.  11.,  581, 
IV.,  3. 

Impekfect  Texse,  197,  I.,'  222,  I. 
Imperf.  indie.,  468  ff. ; subj.,  480  ; 
in  sulg.  of  desire,  483,  2 ; in  potent, 
subj.,  4S5,  N.  1 ; in  seq.  of  tenses, 
493 ; 495,  III. ; for  future  tinie,  496, 
I. ; in  condit.,  507,  III. ; 510 ; 513, 
N.  1 ; in  concess.,  515,  II.,  3;  in 
temp,  clauses,  518,  X.  1 ; 518,  1 ; 
519,  2,  X.  1 ; 520,  II. ; 521,  II. 
Imperitus  \v.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3' 
p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Imperb^  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1 ; 
p.  310,  foot-note  1. 

Impersonal  verbs,  298  ff. ; impers. 
pass.,  195,  II.,  1 ; 5-34,  1.  Clauses 
of  result  as  subjects  of  impers.  verbs, 
501, 1,1.  - - - 

hnpertib^  constr.,  p.  1^8,  foot-note  1. 
Impetrb^  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
Impleb^  constr.,  410,  V.,  1 ; p.  225, 
foot-note  3. 

Imploring,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  374,  2, 

X.  3. 


Imjjos^  os  in,  581,  VII,  1 ; quant,  of 
mcrem.,  585,  II.,  3. 

Impotens  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Imprudent  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note 
3 ; w.  force  of  adverb,  443,  X.  1. 
Impulse,  subj.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  II. 
Imputing,  two  datives  w.  verbs  of, 
_390,  X.  1,  2). 

Imus^  meaning,  440,  X.  2. 

-in,  suffix,  320,  II. 

7>i,  308 ; in  compds.,  S44,  5 and  6 ; w. 
^t.,  386.  In  w.  acc.  or  abl,  435; 
435,  X.  1 ; 435,  I. ; w.  acc.  after 
adjs.,  391,  11,  1 ; for  gemt.,  396, 
111,  X.  1.  In  w.  abl.  for  genlt., 
397,  3,  X.  3.  In  w.  ger.,  p.  315, 
foot-note  5;  p.  316,  foot-note  1.  / 
in  579,  3. 

-Ina.  nouns  in,  324. 

Incassum^  304,  I.,  2. 

' Inciedb^  constr.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 

; Inceptives,  280  ; 337. 

■ Incertus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

: Inchoatives,  337. 

I inclination,  constr.  w.  adjs.  of,  391, 

I II.,  1,(2). 

I Inclutus^  16 1,  2. 

i Incredibilis  w.  supine,  547,  1. 

I Increments,  quant,  m,  582  ffi  ; decl, 

I 585  ; conj.,  566. 

Inde,  304.  til.,  X. ; 305,  111.  * 310,  4. 

I IndeclinaW  nouns,  127,  1;  128; 

I ^nd.,  42,  X.  Indecl.  adjs.,  159,  I. 

; Indefinite  pronouns,  189  ; 455  ffi  In- 
i del  relat.  adverbs,  305,  X.  1.  In- 

I del  subject,  460,  1,  X.  2 ; 518,  2. 

i Independent  clauses,  348,  X.  2. 

! Index  of  verbs,  p.  383;  lync  metres 
of  Horace,  632. 

Indicative,  196,  1 ; use,  474  5.  In- 
! die.  for  subj.  in  condil,  511. 

' Indigeo^  constr.,  410,  V.,  1. 

: Indignus^  constr.,  421,  III,  421,  X. 

I 3.  Indvgn^JLS  qui  w.  subj.,  503,  11, 

! 2.  Indignus  w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Indigus^  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  4. 
INDIRECT  Discourse,  522;  moods  in 
i prin.  clauses,  523;  in  sub.  clauses, 
524 ; tenses,  525  ; persons  and  pro- 
nouns, 526 ; condit.  sentences,  527. 
Direct  changed  to  indir.,  530 ; Indir. 
to  direct,  531.  Indirect  clauses,  528 
ff. ; questions,  529 ; subj.  in,  529, 
I 1 ; indie.,  529,  7. 
j IxDiRECT  Object,  382  ffi  ; w.  dired 
! object,  384,  II. 

Indo-European  languages,  638. 
j Indu^  u in,  p.  340,  foot-note  1. 
j Indued  J constr.,  377. 

I Indulging,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II 


406 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Induo^  constr.,  377  ; p.  198j  foot-note  1. 
-ine,  nouns  in,  322,  N. ; I in,  587,  3. 

Inferne^  e final  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Ijiferus^  compar.,  163,  3. 

Infidelis  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note, 1. 
Infimus^  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 
Infinitive,  200,  I. ; origin,  p.  156, 
foot-note  1 ; gend.,  42,  N. ; end- 
ings, 248.  Infin.  in  sequence  of 
tenses,  495,  4.  Infin.  in  relat. 
clauses,  524,  1, 1)  ; after  conjs.,  524, 
1,  2).  Construction  of  infin.,  532 
fi'.  Infin.  w.  verbs,  533.  Infin.  of 
purpose,  533,  II.  Infin.  w.  adjs., 
533,  II.,  3;  w.  verb,  nouns,  etc., 
533,  3,  N.  3 ; w.  preps.,  533,  3,  N. 
4 ; w.  verbs  w.  acc.,  534 ; 535.  Sub- 
ject of  infin.,  536.  Histor.  infin., 
536,  1.  Pred.  after  infin.,  536,  2. 
Tenses  of  infin.,  537.  Infin.  as  sub- 
ject, 538.  Infin.  in  special  constr., 
539;  as  pred.,  539,  I.;  as  appos., 
539,  II. ; in  exclamations,  539,  III.  ; 
_ in  abl.  abs.,  539,  IV. 
fnfitidSy  constr.,' 380,  2,  3). 

Ijifiuence,  dat.  of,  384,  1,  1). 

Infrd  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  acc., 
433 ; 433,  I. 

Ingrdtis^  Is  in,  581,  VIII.,  1. 

Ingratus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
Inheritance,  divisions  of,  646,  3,  4). 
-ini^  quant,  of  pen.,  587,  I.,  8. 
Inimicus^  injucundus^  w.  dat.,  p.  205, 
foot-note  1. 

Injuring,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  I. 
Innitor  w.  abl.,  425,  1,1),  N. 

Inops  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Inquam^  position,  569,  V. 

Inquies^  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 
Insciens^,  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 
Inscius  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Inseparable  preps.,  308  ; in  compds., 
_ 344,  6;  quant.,  594,  2. 

Inspergo^  constr.,  p.  198,. foot-note  1. 
Instar^  defective,  134 ; gen.  w.,  398,  4. 
Instrumental  Case,  367,  3 ; 411,  II. 

Instr.  abl.,  418  If.  Abl.  of  instru- 
_ ment,  420. 

Instruo^  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 
Insuber^  decl.,  65,  1,  2). 

Insuetus  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3;  p. 

210,  foot-note  3 ; p.  315,  foot-note  2. 
Insuper  w.  acc.  or  abl.,  437,  3. 

Integer  w.  gen.,  399,  III.,  1. 
Intensives,  336. 

Inter  in  compds.,  344,  5 ; w.  dat.,  386. 
Inter  w.  acc.,  433  ; 433, 1.  ; for  ^en., 
397,  3,  N.  3 ; w.  reciprocal  force, 
448,  N.  Inter  w.  ger.,  p.  315,  foot- 
note 5. 


Interchange  of  vowels  and  consonants, 
28 ; 29. 

Intercludo^  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1. 

Intercus  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 3. 

Inter diu^  interdius^  interdum^  304,  I., 

2. 

Interea^  304,  IV.,  N.  2. 

Interest,  dat.  of,  384,  1,  2).  Eom. 
computation  of  interest,  646,  3,  3). 

Interest^  constr.,  406,  III.  ; 408. 

Interior^  compar.,  166. 

Interjections,  312 ; 556;  557;  w.  voc., 
369,  1 ; w.  acc.,  381,  N.  2;  w.  dat., 
381,  N.  3.  3) ; 389,  N.  2. 

Internal  Object,  371,  I.,  2. 

Interne^  e final  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Interrogative  pronouns,  188 ; 454. 
Inter,  conjs.,  311,  8;  555,  VIII. 
Inter,  sentences,  351.  Inter,  words, 
351,  1.  Double  questions,  353. 
Inter,  sentences  w.  potent,  subj., 
486,  II. ; in  indir.  disc.,  523,  II.  In- 
direct questions,  528,  2 ; 529,  I. 

Interrogo  w.  two  accs.,  374,  2. 

Interval,  abl.  of,  430. 

Intimus^  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

Intrd  w.  acc.,  433  ; 433,  I. 

Intransitive  verbs,  193,  II. ; 195,  II., 
1 ; 372,  III.,  N.  3 ; impers.  passive, 
465,  1. 

Intro-  in  compds. , 594,  8. 

Intus  w.  abl.,  437,  2. 

-mus,  adjs.  in,  330, 331 ; compar.,  169, 
3.  -Inus  or  -Inus  in  adjs.,  587,  II., 
5,  w.  N.  2. 

Invddb^  constr.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 

Invicem^  304,  I.,  2. 

Inmtus^  compar.,  167,  2;  special  use 
of  dat.,  387,  N.  3.  Iwvltus  w.  force 
of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 
interi.,  312,  2. 

-io,  verbs  of  Conj.  III.  in,  217  ff.  ; 
quant,  of  stem-syllable,  588.  -7o, 

-i5^  suffixes,  320,  II.  ; nouns  in,  324 ; 
326. 

-ion  in  prop,  names,  I in,  577,  5,  N. 

Ionic  feet,  597,  N.  1 ; verse,  626 ; stan- 
za, 631,  XIII. 

-ior  in  comparatives,  162.  -lor^  suf- 
fix, 320.  II. 

-ios,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Ipse^  decl.,  186,  V.  ; use,  452 ; w.  abl. 
abs.,  434,  4,  N.  3.  Gen.  of  ipse  w 
possessive,  398,  3. 

I^sus  for  ipse^  p.  73,  foot-note  5. 

-ir,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  51,  4. 

Iron  age,  640,  III.,  2. 

Ironical  condition,  507,  3,  N.  1. 

Irony,  637,  V. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


407 


Irrational  time,  596,  1,  N.  2.  Irrat. 
trochee,  598,  1,  1).  Irrat.  iambus, 
598,  1,  2). 

Irregular  nouns,  127  if.  ; adjs.,  159. 
Irreg.  comparison,  163  ff.  Irreg. 
verbs,  289  tf. 

i5,  decl.,  186  ; correlat.,  191 ; use,  |:50, 
4,  N.  2 ; 451.  Is — qul^  451,  4.  E in 
gi,  577,  1.,  2^  (1).  /in  579,  8. 

-is,  decl.  of  adjs.  in,  62,  IV.,  N.  1 ; 
of  nouns  in,  65,  1 ; 82.  Gend.  of 
nouns  in,  105 ; 107^.  -Is  in  adverbs, 
304,  I.,  3,  1).  -Is  in  acc.  pi.,  62: 
64 ; 67  ; in  adverbs,  304,  II.,  1.  -Is 
or  -Is  final,  580,  III.,  w.  N.  2;  581, 

Islands,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  II.,  2 ; 
constr.,  380,  2,  2) ; 412,  II.,  1 ; 426, 1. 

-issimi;,  -issimo,  suffixes,  p.  156, 
foot-note  9. 

-issimus,  a,  um^  in  superlat.,  162; 
p.  157,  foot-note  9. 

-isso,  verbs  in,  336,  N.  2. 

Istdc.,  305,  V. 

Iste^  decl.,  186,  II.;  correlat.,  191 ; use, 
450. 


Istic^  decl.,  186,  2. 

Istlc,  304,  III  2 ; 305,  I. 

Istinc^  305,  III. 

Isto.^  istoc^  304,  II.,  8. 

Istuc,  304,  II.,  3 ; 305,  II. 

-it  in  Plautus  for  -it,  580,  III.,  N.  2. 
Ita,  305,  V.  ; ita—sl,  607,  3,  N.  2. 
Meaning  of  551,  N.  2.  Ut — ita, 
w.  superlat.,  555,  II.,  1.  A in  ita, 
581,  III.,  3.  Ita  redundant,  636, 

111.,  7. 

Itaqiie,  310,  4. 

-itas,  nouns  in,  324  ; 325  ; ^ in,  587, 

11.,  4. 

-iter,  i in,  587,  II.,  4. 

-itia,  nouns  in,  325. 

-ities,  nouns  in,  325,  N.  1. 

-itim,  I in,  587,  I.,  7. 

-itimus,  adjs.  in,  330,  1. 

-it mm,  nouns  in,  324. 

-ito,  ^’equentatives  in,  336,  II. 
-itudo,  nouns  in,  325 ; i in,  587,  IV. , 1. 
-itus  in  adverbs,  i in,_p.  345,  foot- 
note 2 ; 587,  II.,  4.  I in  -Itus,  587, 

1.,  7. 

-iu,  suffix,  820,  II. 

-ium,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  51,  5.  -lum 
in  gen.  pi.,  62;  63;  64;  66;  67. 
Nouns  in  -ium,  324 ; 327. 

-ius,  suffix,  320,  II.  Decl.  of  nouns 
in  -ius,  51,  5.  _ Adjs.  in  -ius,  330  ; 
331;  333,  5.  I ox _i  in  lusm  gen., 
577,  I.,  3,  (3).  1 in  Im  in  prop, 
names,  577,  5,  N. 


-ivus,  adjs.  in,  333,  5 ; i in,  587, 1.,  6. 
-ix,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  95.  -Ix,  decl. 
of  nouns  in,  94 ; quant,  of  increm., 
585,  IV.,  1. 


J 

J,  j,  modifications  of  7,  2,  4 ; sound, 

7 ; effect  on  quantity  of  preceding 
syllable,  16,  L,  2;  576,  II. ; 576,  2; 
interchanged  with  i,  28 ; dropped, 
36,  4. 

-ja,  suffix,  320,  1. 

Jacid,  spelling  and  pronunciation  of 
compos.,  36,  4. 

Jam,  compds.  of,  w.  present,  467,  2 ; 
w.  imperf.,  469,  2. 

-jans,  suflix,  320,  1. 

Jecur,  decl.,  77,  4. 

Jocus,  joci,joca,  141. 

-j5r,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Jo^  force  of  adjs.  expressing,  443, 

Jubar,  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 1.,  4,  (1). 

Jubeb,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1 ; in 
pass.,  534,  1,  N.  1. 

Jucundus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1 ; 
w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Judex,  decl.,  59. 

Judicio,  constr.,  410,  II.,  1. 

Jugerum,  decl.,  136,  1.  Jugerum  as 
unit  of  measure,  648,  V. 

Jugum,  quant,  of  syllable  before  j in 
compds.,  576,  2. 

Julian  calendar,  641. 

Jungo  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1 ; w. 
abb,  419,  1,  1). 

Juppiter,  decl.,  66,  3. 

Juratus  w^  active  meaning,  257,  N.  2. 

Jus,  decl.,  61. 

Jusjurandum,  decl.,  126. 

Jussb  ioY  jusserd,  240,  4. 

Juvenal,  versification,  630. 

Juvenis,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  3 ; corn- 
par.,  168,  4. 

Juvb  w.  accus.,  385,  II.,  N.  1. 

Juxtd  w.  accus.,  433. 


K 


K seldom  used,  2,  6. 

-ka,  suffix,  320,  I. 

Karthdgb,  decl.,  66,  4. 

Kindred  words  near  each  other,  563. 
Knowing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533,  I., 
1;  535,  L,l,  (2). 

Knowledge,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  399,  I.. 
2;  p.  315,  foot-note  2;  w.  force  oi 
adverbs,  443,  N.  1. 


408 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


L 

L,  stems  in,  decl.,  60 ; nouns  in,  dec!., 
75;  gend..  Ill;  112.  Quant,  of 
final^syllables  in  Z,  579,  2 ; 580,  II. 
-la,  la,  suffixes,  320.  Nouns  in  -la^ 
321. 

Labials,  3,  II. ; 3,  N.  1,  I.,  3.  Labial 
stems,  57. 

Lacer ^ decl.,  150,  N.,  1). 

Lacrimo  w.  accus.,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 
Lacus^  decl.,. 117, 1,  2). 

Laedo  w.  accus.,  385,  II.,  N.  1. 

Laetus  w.  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 
Laerd^  constr.,  425,  2. 

Lampas^  decl.,  68. 

Language,  Latin,  638. 

Lajfis^  decl.,  58. 

Ldr^  quant,  ofincrem.,  585,  I.,  4,  (1). 
Lassus  not  compared,  169,  4. 

Latin  period,  573.  Lat.  lang.  and 
literature,  638.  Early  Latin,  639. 
Lat.  authors,  640. 

Learning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 

I.,l. 

Leaving,  verbs  of,  w.  two  dats.,  390, 
N.  1,  2). 

Lengthening  of  vowels,  20. 

-lens,  -lentus,  adjs.  in,  328. 

LeO^  decl.,  60. 

Lepus^  quant,  ofincrem.,  585,  II.,  3. 
Lesser  Ionic,  597,  N. ; Archilochian, 
617,  N. ; Asclepiadean,  628,  IV. ; 
Sapphic,  628,  VI. ; Alcaic,  628, 

Letters,  classification,  3 ; sounds,  5 ff. 
Names  of  letters  indecl.,  128,  1. 
Tenses  in  letters,  472,  1. 

-leus,  nouns  in,  321,  N. 

Lero^  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5;  p. 
219,  foot-note  1. 

Lex^  quant,  of  increm. , 585,  III. , 3. 
-li,  sufiix,  320,  II. 

Lioens  w.  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 
Liber ^ Bacchus,  liheri^  decl.,  51,  4. 

Liber ^ era^  erum^  149. 

Llbero^  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5 ; p. 
219,  foot-note  1. 

lAbra^  648,  I.  ; divisions,  648,  I.,  1. 
Libro^  constr.,  425,  2,  N.  1. 

Liceo  w.  abb,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Licet ^ 311,  4 ; w.  subj.,  515,  III.  Ple- 
onasm w'.  licet ^ 636,  III.,  9. 

Liger ^ decl.,  66,  III.,  1. 

Ligus  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 3. 

Likeness,  dat.  w.  adjs.  of,  391,  I. ; 
391,  II.,  4. 

Limit,  accus.  of,  380. 

Linter^  deck,  65,  1,  2). 


Liquid  i in,  590,  1. 

Liquid  measure,  Kom.,  648,  III. 

Liquids,  3,  II.,  4;  developing  vowels, 
29,  N.  Liquid  stems,  60. 

Lis^  deck,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  quant, 
ofincrem.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

-lis,  adjs.  in,  333. 

Literature,  Lat.,  638. 

Litotes,  637,  VIII. 

Littera^  litterae.  132.  lAtterds  dare. 
385,  1,  N. 

Litum i in,  590,  1. 

-1q,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Locative,  45,  2 ; 48,  4 ; 51,  8 : 66,  4 ; 
120,  N.  Locatives  as  adverbs,  304, 
III.  Abk  w.  locat.,  363, 4,  2).  Syn- 
tax of  locat.,  367,  2;  411,  III. ; 425, 
II.  ; 426,  2.  Locat,  abk,  425,  ff. 

Loco^  constr.,  380,  N. 

Locuples.,  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 

Locus^  plur.,  141.  Loco^  constr.,  415, 
II.,  N.  Lo  co^  locis.  constr.,  425,  2. 

Logaoedic  verse,  627  tf. 

Long  measure,  Eom.,  648,  IV. 

Long  syllables,  575.  Long  stem-syl- 
lables in  primitives,  595.  Pinal 
long  vowel  shortened  in  hiatus,  608, 
II.,  N.  3. 

Longinquus.^  superlat.  wanting,  168,  3. 

Longius  without  quam.,  417,  1,  N.  2. 

-Is^  deck  of  nouns  in,  90. 

Luctor  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Ludicer.^  defect.,  159,  II. 

Ludus.^  ludl^  132. 

Lues.,  defective,  134. 

-lus,  -lum,  nouns  in,  321 ; adjs.,  332. 

Lux.,  without  gen.  plur.,  133, 5 ; quant, 
ofincrem.,  585,  V.,  2. 

Lycurgides.,  i in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 

Lynx.,  deck,  p.  38,  foot-note  3. 

Lyric  metres  of  Horace,  631 ; mdex, 
632. 

M 


M changed  to  ti,  33,  4 ; assimilated  to 
5,  34,  1,  N. ; developing 34, 1,  N. 
Stems  in  m,  60.  Prepositions  in  m, 
p.  149,  foot-note  2.  Quant,  of  final 
syllables  in  w,  579,  2 ; 580,  II.  M 
final  elided,  608,  I. 

-mU;,  -mi;,  suffixes,  320. 

Maereo.,  constr.,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 

Magis  in  comparison,  170 ; 444,  2, 
notes  1 and  2.  Non  magis — quam., 
555,  II.,  1. 

Mdgnus  compared,  165.  Mdgnl., 
constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  2. 

Major  in  expressions  of  age,  p.  222, 
foot-note  4. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


409 


Making,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accs.,  373. 

Male  compared,  306,  2.  Dat.  w. 
compds.  of  male.^  384,  4,  N.  1.  E in 
male^  581,  IV.,  4. 

Mdld\,  const!’.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1 ; 499, 
2 : p.  310,  foot-note  1.  Is  in  mavis ^ 
581,  VIII.,  3,  N. 

Malus^  compar.,  165. 

-man,  suffix,  320,  I. 

Manifestus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Manner,  adverbs  of,  305,  Is . 2,  3).  Abl. 
of  manner,  419,  III.  Manner  ex- 
pressed by  particip.,  549,  1. 

Manus,  gend.,  118. 

Mare.,  decl.,  63  ; 63,  2.  Marl.,  constr., 
425,  2. 

Margarita.,  plur.,  142. 

Martial,  metres,  633,  II. 

Mas.,  deck,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  quant, 
of  increm.,  585,  L,  4,  (2). 

Masculine  caesura,  611,  N. 

Mastery,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  399,  I.,  3 ; 
verbs  of,  w.  gen.,  410,  V.,  3. 

Material  expressed  by  abl.,  415.  Ma- 
terial nouns,  39,  2,  3) ; plur.,  130,  2. 

Maturus.,  compar.,  163,  1,  N. 

Matutinus.,  i in,  p.  345,  foot-note  5. 

Maxime  in  adverbia!  comparison,  170. 

Maximi.,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  2. 

Means,  abl.  of,  418  ; 420.  Means  ex- 
pressed by  particip.,  549,  1. 

Measure  of  difference,  abl.  of,  417,  2. 
Eoman  measures,  646  ; 648. 

Mecastor.,  interj.,  p.  152,  foot-note  4. 

Med  for  me.,  184,  5. 

Medeor  w.  dat.,  385,  II.,  N.  3. 

Medial  vowels,  3,  I.,  2. 

Medius  designating  part,  440,  N.  2. 

Medius  fidius.,  mehercute.,  mehercules., 
inter].,  p.  152,  foot-note  4. 

Mel.,  defect.,  133,  4,  N. 

Melius  w.  indicat.,  475,  5. 

Melos.,  deck,  68,  6. 

Members  of  complex  sentences,  348, 

N.  1. 

M~mie  for  ml.,  184,  4. 

Memini  w.  gen.,  406,  II. ; w.  ace., 
407 ; w.  pres,  infin.,  537,  1. 

Memor.,  deck,  158.  Memor  w.  gen., 
p.  210,  foot-note  3.  Quant,  of  in- 
crem. of  memor.,  585,  II.,  3. 

Memorabilis  w.  sup.,  547,  1. 

-men,  suffix,  320,  II. ; nouns  in,  327. 

Mendicus.,  i in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 

Mensa.,  deck,  48. 

Mensis.,  deck,  p.  36,  foot-note  3. 

-mento,  suffix,  p.  157,  foot-note  1. 

-mentum,  nouns  in,  327. 

Mepte  for  me.,  184,^  5. 

Merces.,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 


MeridAes.  gend.,  123;  defect.,  130, 1, 4). 

Messis.,  deck,  62,  III.,  1. 

-met,  forms  in,  184,  3 ; 185,  N.  2. 

Metaphor,  637,  II. 

Metathesis,  635,  5. 

Metonymy,  637,  III. 

Metre,  601,  N.  3. 

Metrical  equivalents,  598.  Metr.  name 
of  verse,  603. 

Metuo.,  constr.,  385,  1 ; p.  274,  foot- 
note 3. 

Meus.,  deck,  185,  N.  1. 

Mi  for  miJii.,  184. 

Middle  voice,  465. 

Miles.,  deck,  58. 

Militia,  deck,  48,  4;  constr.,  426,  2. 

Mille.,  deck,  159,  I. ; use,  174,  4;  178. 
Milia  masc.  by  synesis,  461,  2. 

Million  sesterces,  how  denoted,  647, 

-min,  suffix,  320,  II. 

-miniaspers.  enck,p.  118,  foot-note  3. 

Minimi.,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  2. 

-mino  in  imperat.,  240,  5. 

Minor  caesura,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 

Minor.,  minus.,  without  quam.,  417,  N. 
2.  Minoris.,  constr.,  405;  p.  213, 
foot-note  2. 

Minus.,  minime^  as  negatives,  552,  3. 
Non  minus — quam.,  555,  II.,  1. 

Mirificus.,  compar.,  164,  N.  • 

Miror  w.  acc.,  371,  III.,  N.  1 ; w. 
gen.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5;  p.  310, 
foot-note  2. 

Mirum  w.  quantum.  305,  N.  4. 

Mirus  not  compared,  169,  4. 

Mis  for  mei.  184,  5. 

Misceo  w.  dat.,  385,  3 ; p.  201,  foot- 
note 1;  w.  acc.  and  dat.,  p.  201, 
foot-note  2 ; w.  abk,  419,  1,  1),  (2). 

Miser.,  deck,^  150,  N. 

Misereor.,  miseresco.,  w.  gen.,  406.  Mis- 
erescit., miseretur.,  constr.,  410,  IV., 
N.  1. 

Miseret.,  constr.,  409,  III. 

Mitto  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 

-mo,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Moderor.,  constr.,  385,  1. 

Modifiers,  357  n.  Position  of  mo*di- 
fiers,  of  nouns,  565;  adjs.,  566; 
verbs,  567  ; adverbs,  568. 

Modius,  648,  II. 

Modo.,  311,  3.  Modo.,  modo  ne.,  w. 
subj.  of  desire,  483,  6.  Modo  w. 
sub],  in  condit,  513,  I.  Non  modo 
— sed  etiam  (verum  etiam),  554,  I., 
5.  0 final  in  modo  and  compds. , 581, 
II. , 1. 

Modus.,  circumlocutions  w.,  636,  III., 

10. 


410 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Molestus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Molossus,  633,  111.,  1,  N. 

-mon,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Moneo.,  constr.,  3Y4,  2 ; p.  193,  foot- 
note 3 ; 410, 1.,  2 ; p.  274,  foot-note  1. 

Money, ^Koman,  646  ffi 

-monia,  -moniOj  suffixes,  p.  157, 
f(wt-note  1 ; moma.,  nouns  in,  327. 

-monium,  nouns  in,  327. 

Monocolon,  p.  352,  foot-note  3. 

Monometer,  603,  N.  2. 

Monosyllabic  preps,  repeated,  636, 
III.,  6. 

‘Monosyllables,  quant.,  579.  Mono- 
syllables at  end  of  line,  613,  N.  2. 

Months,  Eoman,  641;  642,  III.,  2; 
names  of,  originally  adjs.,  p.  36, 
foot-note  2;  gender,  42,  1.,  2; 
names  of,  in  -her.  decl.,  65,  1,  1). 

Moods,  196.  Mood  signs,  244  fi.  In- 
die., 466  ff.  Subj.,  477  ffi  ; 490  if. 
Imperat.,  487  ff.  Moods  in  subord. 
clauses,  490  ff. ; in  condit,  sentences, 
506  if.  ; in  concess.  clauses,  514  ff. ; 
in  causal  clauses,  516  ff*. ; in  temp, 
clauses,  518  ff.  ; in  indir.  disc., 
523  ff.  ; in  indir.  clauses,  529.  In- 
finit,  532  ff. 

Mprae  or  times,  597. 

Mds.,  mbr'es.,  132. 

Motion  to,  how  expressed,  384,  3,  1) ; 
385,  4,  1) ; 386,  3. 

Moved  w.  abb,  414,  II.  ; w.  subj.,  p. 
274,  foot-note  2. 

-ms,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  88. 

Mulciber.,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

Multi.,  indef.  num.,  175,  N.  3. 

Multimodis.,  304,  II.,  1,  IN’. 

Multiplication,  how  expressed,  174,  2, 
2). 

Multiplicati  ves,  173,  1. 

Multuudb  w.  plur.  verb,  461,  1. 

Multus.,  compar.,  165 ; plur.,  175,  N.  3. 

Mus.,  decl. , 64 ; p.  38,  foot-note  4. 

Mutes,  3,  II.,  5. 

Muto.,  constr.,  422,  N.  2. 

. N 

N assimilated  to  34,  2 ; to  m,  34, 
3 ; dropped,  36,  3,  N.  3 ; 36,  5,  3). 
Stems  m n.  60.  Decl.  of  nouns  in 
w,  76  ; gend.,  113.  Quant,  of  final 
syllables  in  w,  580,  II.,  w.  notes  1 
and  2.^ 

-na,  -na,  suffixes,  320. 

Nam.,  310, 5 ; w.  emphasis,  351,  4,  N.  1. 

Name,  dat.  of,  387,  N.  1 ; gen.  or,  387, 
N.  2.  Name  of  verse,  603. 

Names,  Eoman,  331,  N.  3 ; 439,  4,  N. ; 


649.  Names  of  towns,  constr.,  380, 
II. ; 412,  II. ; 425,  II.  ; 428. 

Namque,  310,  5 ; 554,  V.,  2. 

Nasals,  3,  II.,  2;  developing  vowels, 
29,  N. 

Natalis,  natales,  132. 

Natus  w.  abi.,  415,  II. 

Nauci,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  3. 

Navis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Nd  shortens  preceding  vowel,  p.  37, 
foot-note  2. 

-Ne,  interrog.  particle,  310,  2,  N. ; 311, 
8 ; in  questions,  351,  1 and  2 ; in 
double  questions,  353,  1 ; in  indir. 
questions,  529,  1 and  3.  rosition  of 
-ne,  569,  III.,  4.  E elided  before 
consonant,  608,  I.,  N.  2. 

Ne,  311,  4 and  5 ; 552 ; w.  subj.  of 
desire,  483,  3 ; 489,  3 ; w.  imperat., 
488  ; w.  subj.  of  purpose,  497j  II.  ; 

498,  III.,  notes  1 and  2;  omitted, 

499,  2.  Ne,  in  concessions^  515,  III. 
Ne  non,  552,  1.  Ne — qmdem,  553, 
2;  569,  III.,  2.  Ne  or  ne  as  prefix, 
5_94,  2. 

-ne,  nouns  in,  322,  N. 

Nearness,  dat.  w.  adjs.  of,  391,  I. ; 
gen.,  391,  4. 

Nec,  310,  1 ; 554, 1.,  2.  Nec — nec  (ne- 
que), — et  (que),  et—nec,  554, 1., 5. 
Eosition  of  nec  in  poetry,  569,  III., 
N.  ^ in  nec,  579,  3. 

Necessarius  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Necessary,  dat.  w.  adjs.  signifying, 
391, 1. 

Necesse  est,  constr.,  502,  1. 

Necne,  310,  2,  N. ; 311,  8 ; 353,  2,  N. 
3 ; 529,  3,  2). 

Nectar,  quant,  of  mcrem.,  585,  I.,  4, 
(1>- 

Nectb  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Nedum  w.  subj.,  483,  3,  N. ; 0 in,  594, 
2,  N.  2. 

Needing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  414,  I. 

NefaSj  defect.,  134;  w.  sup.,  547,  1. 

Negatives,  552  ; w.  subj.  of  desire, 
483,  3.  Two  neg.,  553.  Gen.  neg., 
553,  1 and  2.  Position  of  neg.,  569, 
IV.,  1. 

Nemo,  use,  457,  1 ; followed  by  quin, 
p.  278,  foot-note  3.  E in  nlmb,  594, 
2,  N.  2. 

Nlnu,  u in,  p.  340,  foot-note  1. 

Nepbs,  decl.,  58. 

Nequam  indecl.,  159,  I.  ; compar., 
165,  N.  2 ; e in,  594,  2,  N.  2. 

Nequaquam,  e in,  594,  2,  N.  2. 

Neque,  310, 1 ; 554, 1.,  2.  Neque — ne- 
que, 553,  2;  554,  I.,  5.  Neque — et, 
et — neque,  554,  I.,  5. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


411 


N — quidem.^  553,  2‘  569,  III.,  2. 
Nequiquam.^  ntquiUa^  e in,  694,  2,  N. 
2.^ 

NerHsj,  I in,  p.  345,  foot-note  1. 

Nescid  quis^  qul,  191,  N.  ; 455,  2.  Ne- 
scid  w.  interrog.  adv., 305,  N.  3.  Ne- 
scid qids^  quomodo.,  w.  indie.,  529,  5, 
8).  Nescib  an.,  529,  3,  N.  2. 

Nescius  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Neu.,  see  N^e. 

-neus,  adjs.  in,  329. 

Neuter.,  decl.,  151,  1. 

Neuter  nom.,  acc.^  and  voc.  pi.,  46,  2, 
1).  Neuter  by  signification,  42,  N. ; 
by  ending,  Decl.  II.,  53  ; Decl.  III., 
Ill ; Ded.  IV.,  118.  Neuter  pron. 
or  adj.,  as  cognate  acc.,  371,  II. ; 375 ; 
w.  part,  gen.,  397,  3 ; in  pred.,  438, 
4.  Om  increm.  of  neut.^  585,  II.,  1. 
Neve.,  neu.,  311,  5;  w.  subj.  of  desire, 
483,  3 ; w.  imperat. , 488  ; w.  subj.  or 
purpose,  _497,  1,  N.  Neve — neve^ 

552,  2.  J'in  neve.,  594,  2,  N.  2. 

Nex.,  defect.,  133,  5. 

Nf  lengthens  preceding  vowel,  16,  N. 

2. 

311,  3;  in  condit.,  507  ff.  N%  = 
‘but,’  ‘except,’  507,  3,  N.  3.  El 
for  ne.,  552,  1. 

-ni,  sutfix,  320. 

Night,  Eom.  division  of,  645 ; 645,  1. 
Nmil.,  defect.,  134;  for  non.,  457,  3. 
Nihil  aliud  nisi.,  nihil  aliud  quam., 
555,  III.,  1. 

Nihili.,  constr.,  404,  N.  2. 

Nimis  w.  genit.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3. 
Nimium  quantum,  305,  N.  4. 

Nisi,  311,  3 ; in  condit.,  507  ff.  Nisi 
— ‘ but,’  ‘ except,’  507,  3,  N.  3 * = 
‘except,’  ‘than,’  555,^  III.,  1.  Nisi 
si,  507,  3,  N.  4.  Nisi  quod,  nihil 
aliud  nisi,  555,  III.,  1.  / final  in 
nisi,  581,  1.,  1. 

Nltor,  constr.,  425, 1,  1),  N. ; 498,  II., 

N.  1. 

Nix,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  66 ; w. 

short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot-note  2. 
-no,  sulfix,  320,  II. 

Nolo,  constr.,  499,  2 ; p.  310,  foot-note 

1.  Noll,  nbllte,  in  prohibitions,  489, 
1).  /in  nbllte,  etc.,  586,  III.,  4. 

Nbmen  w.  dat.,  387,  N.  1 ; w.  gen., 
387,  N.  2.  Nbmine  w.  gen.  of  crime, 
410,  II.,  1.  Nbmen  in  name  of  a 
Eom.  citizen,  649. 

Nominative  neut.  pi.  in  adjs.,  158,  1. 
Syntax  of  nom.,  S68 ; two  nom.,  373, 

2.  Nom.  for  voc.,  369,  2.  Nom.  in 
exclamations,  381,  N.  3,  2).  -Es  in 
nom.  sing.,  581,  VI.,  1 ; -Is,  581, 


VIII.,  2 ; -us,  581,  IX.,  1 ; in  plur.. 
581,  IX.,  2. 

Nbn,  p.  145,  foot-note  2;  552.  Nbn 
modo  nbn,  nbn  sblum  nbn,  552,  2. 
Non  sblum  (non  modo  or  non  tan- 
tum)— sed  etiam  (verum  etiam),  554, 
I.^  5.  Nbn  minus — quam,  nbn  ma- 
gis— quam,  555  j II.,  1.  Nbn  quo, 
qiLod,  quin,  quia,  w.  subj.,  516,  2. 
Nbn  w.  gen.  negat.,  553,  1.  Posi- 
tion of  nbn,  569,  IV. 

Nbndum,  555,  1.,  1. 

Nones,  642,  I.,  2. 

Nonne,  311,  8 ; 351,  1 and  2. 

Nbs  for  ego,  noster  for  meus,  446,  N.  2. 

Nostras,  decl.,  185,  N.  3. 

Nostri,  nostrum,  446,  N.  3. 

Nbtus  w.  dat.,  p.  205.  foot-note  1. 

Nouns,  etymol.,  89  m ; gend.,  40  ff. ; 
pers.  and  num.,  44 ; cases,  45  ; decl., 
46  fi*. ; defect.,  122 ; 129  fi*. ; indecl., 
128 ; heteroclites,  135  fi*. ; hetero- 
geneous, 141  fi*.  Syntax,  362  fi*. ; 
agreement,  362  fi. ; general  view  of 
cases,  365  if. ; nom.,  368 , voc.,  369  ; 
acc.,  370  fi*. ; dat.,  382  fi*. ; gen.,  393 
fip. ; abi.,  367  ; 411  fi*. ; w.  preps., 
432  fi*.  iSTouns  as  adjs.,  441,  3.  Po- 
sition of  modifiers  of  nouns,  565. 

Novus,  compar.,  167,  2. 

Nox,  aeci.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4. 

Noxius  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1; 
w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

-ns,  .decl.  of  nouns  in,  65,  3 ; 90.  Ns 
lengthens  preceding  vowel,  16, 
N.  2. 

Nt  dropped,  p.vl9,  foot-note  9 ; short- 
ens preceding  vowel,  p.  37,  foot- 
note 2. 

-nu,  suffix,  320. 

Nubecula,  p.  159,  foot-note  1. 

Nubes,  decl.,  62. 

Nubo  w.  dat.,  385,  N.  3. 

Nudb,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Nullus,  decl.,  151, 1 ; for  Eng.  adverb, 
443,  N.  1 ; use,  457,  2 ; for  nbn,  457, 
3.  Nullus  followed  by  quin,  p.  278, 
foot-note  3. 

Num,  310,  2,  N. ; 311,  8 ; 351,  1 ; in 
indir.  quest. 529,  II.,  1,  N.  3. 

-num,  nouns  in,  327. 

Number,  44 ; in  verbs,  199.  Gen.  in 
descriptions  of  number,  419,  2,  1). 

Numerals,  171  fi*. ; adjs.,  172 fi: ; decl., 
175  if, ; symbols,  180 ; adverbs,  181 ; 
in  compounding  numbers,  174,  3. 
Numerals  w.  gen.,  397,  2.  Numer- 
als  in  dates,  642,  III.,  I. 

Nummus,  647. 

Nunc,  304,  I. , 4 ; 305,  IV. 


412 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


Nuntior ,,  constr.,  534,  N.  1,  (2). 

Nuper ^ 304,  IV.,  N.  2 ; compar.,  306, 4. 

>nus,  adjs.  in,  329. 

Nusquam  w.  gen.,  397,  4. 

O 

0,  o,  sound,  5 ; 10 ; 11.  0 final  short- 
ened, 21,  2,  3).  (9-nouns,  51.  Decl. 
of  nouns  in  6^  <5,  60,  4 ; 72 ; quant, 
of  increm.,  585,  II.,  5,  (2);  gend., 
99;  100.  Num.  adverbs  in  -o,  181, 
N.  2.  Origin  of  o final  in  verbs,  p. 
118,  foot-note  5.  Adverbs  in  -o, 
304,  II.,  1 and  2_.  Super lat.  adverbs 
in  -0,  306,  6.  0 or  <?,  final,  580,  I. ; 

581,  II.  ; in  incrcm.  of  decl.,  585; 
585,  II.  • conj.,  586.  0,  interj.,  812, 
1,  2,  and  5 ; w.  acc.,  381,  N.  2._  0 
si  w.  subj.  of  desire,  483,  1.  0 in 
hiatus,  608,  II.,  1. 

-o,  -5,  suflixes,  320,  II.  Nouns  in  -<5, 
326,  2. 

Ob  in  compds.,  344,  5 ; in  compds. 
w.  dat.,  386.  Ob  w.  acc.,  433; 
433,  I. ; w.  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  5. 

Obeying,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  1. 

Obiter,,  304,  I.,  2. 

Object,  direct,  371 ; external,  371,  I., 
1 ; internal,  371,  I.,  2.  Object 
omitted,  371  j III.,  N.  4.  Infin.  or 
clause  as  object,  371,  IV. ; 540,  N. 
Indir.  object,  382  if.  Object  clauses 
of  purpose,  498  ; of  result,  501,  II. 

Objective  compds.,  343,  II.  Object, 
gen.,  396,  III, 

Oblique  cases,  45,  1 ; use  of,  370  ff. 

Obliviscor  w.  gen.,  406,  II. ; w.  acc., 
407. 

Oboediens  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  3. 

Obviam,  304,  I.,  2. 

Occlsit  lor  occiderit,,  240,  4. 

Occupatio,  p.  373,  foot-note  2. 

Ocior,,  compar.,  166. 

Octo,,  0 final  in,  581,  IV.,  2. 

Oe,  sound,  6 ; 12. 

Oedipus,,  u in,  581,  IX.,  3,  N. 

Of  endo,,  constr.,  385,  II.,  N.  1. 

Ohe,  interj.,  312,  3 ; 0 in,  577,  I.,  4;  e 
in,  581,  IV.,  4. 
sound,  6,  1 ; 12,  1. 

-ois,  6 in,  587,  I.,  3 ; 577,  5,  N. 

-oius  in  prop,  names,  6 in,  577,  5, 
N. 

-ola,  0 in,  587,  II.,  3. 

-olentus,  0 in,  587,  IV.,  1. 

Oleo  w.  acc.,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 

Ollus,,  olle,,  ibr  ille,,  p.  73,  foot-note  1, 

-olus,  0 in,  587,  II.,  3. 


Omission  of  consonants,  36  ; of  tyrd  in 
adjurations,  569,  II.,  3. 

Omnis of,  w.  possessives,  398,  3. 
-on,  -on,  suffixes,  320,  II.  • -on  in 
Greek  gen.  plur.,  68,  4.  Quant,  of 
increm.  of  nouns  in  -on,  585,  II.,  5, 
_(2). 

-ona,  6 in,  587, 1.,  5. 

-one  in  patronymics,  322,  N. ; o in, 
587,  I.,  3. 

Onero,,  constr. , p.  225,  foot-note  3. 
-oni,  0 in,  587,  I.,  8. 

Cffiomatopoeia,  637,  XI.,  5. 

-onus,  0 in,  587,  I.,  5. 

Open  vowel,  3,  I.,  1. 

Opera,,  operae,,  132.  Operam  do  w. 

subj.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

Oplmus,,  superlat.  wanting,  168,  3. 
Oportet,,  constr.,  502,  1 ; 537,  1. 
Opposing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  505,  II. 
Ops,,  deck,  p.  38,  foot-note  3;  133,  1. 
Optative  in  fut.  and  in  pres,  subj.,  p. 

117,  foot-note  4.  Optat,  subj.,  484, 1. 
Optimates,,  deck,  64,  2,  4). 

Optimus  w.  supine,  547, 1. 

Opto,,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 

Opus,,  ‘ work,’  deck,  61.  Opusf-  need,’ 
defect.,  134;  constr.,  414,  IV.;  w. 
sup.,  547,  1.  Opus  est  w.  subj., 
^602,  _1. 

-or,  -or,  suffixes,  320,  II.  Nouns  in 
-or,  327.  0 shortened  in  -or,  21,  2, 

2)^  Gen.  of  nouns  in  -or,  99,  101. 
-Or  in  Plautus  for  -or,  580,  III.,  N. 
2.  Quant,  of  increm.  of  nouns  in 
_ -or,h%h,  II.,  5,  (1). 

Okatio  Obliqua,  see  Indirect  Dis- 
course. Oratio  recta,  522,  1. 

Orbis,,  deck,  62,  IV. 

Orbo,,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 
Order  of  vowels  in  strength,  22. 
Ch'dinal numbers,  172;  174;  deck,  179. 
-orius,  0 in,  587,  III.,  1. 

Orno,,  constr. , p.  225,  foot-note  3. 

Ord  w.  two  accs.,  374,  2 ; w.  subj.,  p. 
274,  foot-note  1.  Or 6 omitted  in 

adjurations,  569,  II.,  3. 

Orpheus,,  deck,  68. 

Orthography,  1,  I. ; 2 ff . 

Ortus  w.  abk,  415,  II. 

-orus,  compar,  of  adjs.  in,  169,  3. 

_ 0 in  -orus,  587,  k,  6. 

O5,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  1. 

Os,,  ossis,  deck,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  9 
in,  57^^  3. 

-OS,  sumx,  320,  II.  Sound  of  -os, 
11,  1.  Greek  neuters  in  -os,  68,  6. 
Deck  of  nouns  in  -os,  -os,  83 ; 133, 
4,  N. ; gend.,  99 ; 102.  Os  or  os 
final,  580,  III. ; 581,  VII. 


IN  LEX  OP  SUBJECTS. 


413 


Ossua^  p.  50,  foot-note  1. 

Ostrea.,  plur.,  142. 

-osus,  adjs.  in,  328 ; d in,  587,  I.,  6. 
-otis,  0 in,  587,  L,  3. 

-otus,  0 in,  587,  I.,  7. 

Ovid,  versincation,  630. 

Owing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533,  I.,  1. 
-os,  -ox,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  96. 
Oxymoron,  637,  XI.,  5. 


P 

P changed  to  6,  33,  2 ; to  w,  33,  3,  N. ; 
developed  by  m,  34,  I,  N. 

Faene  w.  perf.  ind.,  471,  2;  w.  hist, 
tenses  of  indie.,  511,  1,  X.  4. 

Faenitet.,  constr.,  409,  III. ; 410,  IV. 

Falam  w.  abb,  437,  2. 

Palatals,  3,  II.,  N.  1,  I.,  1. 

Falus  for  palus.,  581,  IX.,  1,  X. 

Faluster.,  decl.,  153,  X.  1,  1). 

Fanthus.,  voc.,  54,  X.  4. 

Fapae.,  interj.,  312,  2. 

Far,  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1 and 
3;  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  I.,  4,  (1). 

Paraleipsis,  637,  XL,  2. 

Parasitic  u,  5,  4. 

Pardoning,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II. 

Farms,  gen.  plur.,  p.  38,  foot-note  2. 

Parentage  expressed  by  a bl.,  415. 

Parenthetical  clauses  in  indir.  disc., 
524,  2,  1) ; in  indir.  clauses,  529,  II., 
X.  1,  2). 

Faries,  ^ in,  581,  VI.,  1. 

Faris,  decl.,  68. 

Paroemiac  verse,  604,  X.  2. 

Paronomasia,  637,  XI.,  7. 

Fars,  acc.,  64,  X.  2.  Far s,  partes 
Fars  in  fractions,  174,  1.  Parte, 
partibus,  constr.,  425,  2.  Fars  w. 
plur.  verb,  461,  1. 

Farticeps  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Participation,  gen.  w.  adjs.  of,  399,  I., 
3 ; w.  verbs  of,  410,  V.,  3. 

Participles,  200,  IV. ; endings,  248. 
Particip.  in  seq.  of  tenses,  495,  IV. 
Agreement  of  particip.,  438, 1 ; 460, 
1.  Particip.  for  innn^  535,  I.,  4. 
Use  of  particip.,  548  ff. ; denoting 
time,  cause,  manner,  means,  549,  1 ; 
condit.,  concess.,  549,  2;  purpose, 
649,  3 ; for  relat.  clause,  549,  4 ; for 
prin.  clause^  549,  5 ; w.  negat.,  549, 
X.  1.  Particip.  rendered  by  noun, 
549,  X.  2. 

Particles,  302  ff.  ; adverbs,  303  ff. ; 
preps.,  307  ; 308;  conjs.,  309  ff . ; 
mteijections,  312.  Syntax  of  parti- 
cles, 551  ff. ; adverbs,  551  ff,  In- 


terrog.  particles,  p^  152,  foot-note  3 ; 
351,  1 ; 555,  8.  -A  in  particles,  581, 

111.,  3. 

Fartim,  304,  I.,  1;  w.  gen.,  p.  209, 
foot-note  3.  Fartim — partim  for 

pars— pars,  461,  5. 

Partitive  apposition,  364.  Part,  gen., 
396,  IV. ; 397. 

Parts  of  speech,  38. 

Fartus,  decl.,  117,  1,  2). 

Farum  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3. 
Farms,  compar.,  165.  Farvl,  constr., 
p.  213,  foot-note  2. 

Fasser,  decl.,  60. 

Passive  Voice,  195,  II. ; impers.,  195, 

11.,  1.  Passive  constr.,  464;  534, 

I.  Passive  like  middle,  465. 

Fassus,  648,  IV.,  X. 

Fdstor,  pater,  deck,  60. 

Faterfamilids,  deck,  126. 

Fatior,  constr.,  p.  310,  X.  1. 

Patrials,  331,  X.  1 ; quant,  of  increm., 
585,  II.,  5. 

Patronymics,  322. 

Fauci,  defect.,  159,  II. 

Pause,  caesural,  602. 

Fdx,  defect.,  133,  5. 

Feed,  deck,  p.  50,  foot-note  1. 
Peculiarities,  in  conjugat.,  235  ff. ; 
in  seq.  of  tenses,  495  ; in  expressions 
of  purpose^  499  ; of  result,  502.  Pe- 
culiarities in  Eom.  calendar,  642. 
Fecus  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 3. 

Fedester,  deck,  153,  X.  1,  1). 

Felagus,  deck,  51,  7 ; gend.,  53,  2. 
Penalty,  how  expressed,  410,  III. 
Fendtes,  deck,  64,  2,  4). 

Fenes  w.  acc.,  433  ; es  in,  581,  VI.,  2. 
Peninsulas,  constr.  of  names  of,  380, 

II. ,  2,  2). 

Pentameter,  603,  X.  2 ; dactylic,  614. 
Penthemimeral  caesura,  p.  356,  foot- 
' note  4. 

Penthemimeris,  597,  X.  2. 

Fenus,  gend.,  118,  (2). 

Fer  in  compds.,  170,  1;  344,  5;  w. 
acc.,  372.  Fer  w.  acc.,  433  ; 433, 1. ; 
denoting  agency,  415,  I.,  1,  X.  1 ; 
manner  ,41 9,  III.,  X.  3.  Per  se,  452, 
1,  X.  Position  of  per  in  adjura- 
tions, 569,  II.,  3.  E in  per,  579,  3. 
Perceiving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  535,  I. 
Fercontor  w.  two  aces. , 374,  2. 
Perfect  Tense,  197  ; 198.  Perf.  sys- 
tem, 222,  II.  Perfect  stems,  252  ff. 
Perf.  wanting,  262,  X.  2 • 272,  X.  2 ; 
282;  284,  X.  2.  Perf.  w.  pres, 
meaning,  297, 1.,  2.  Syntax  of  jierk 
indie.,  47 1 ; subj.,  481  ; in  subj.  of 


4:14 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


desire,  483,  2 ; in  potent,  subj.,  485, 
N.  1 ; m prohibitions,  489,  3).  Perf. 
in  seq.  of  tenses,  492  ; 493  ; 495 ; 
496,  II.  Perf.  in  condition,  507, 

II.  ; 609  ; 511,  1 ; 511,  2,  N. ; 513, 
JST.  1.  ; in  concess.,  515,  II.,  2;  in 
temp,  clauses,  518,  N.  1 ; 520,  N.  1 ; 
in  indir.  disc.,  525,  1 ; 527,  II.  ; 527, 

III. ,  N.  2.  Perf.  infin.,  537.  Perf. 
particip.,  550  ; rendered  by  verbal 
noun,  549,  3,  N.  2.  -Is  in  perf.  subj., 
581,  VIII.,  5.  Quant,  of  pen.  of 
dissyllabic  perfects,  590.  Quant,  of 
first  two  syllables  of  trisyllabic  re- 
duplicated perfects,  591. 

Perhibeor^  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 

Pericles^  decl.,  68. 

Periculum  est  w.  subj.,  p.  274,  foot- 
note 3. 

Period,  Lat.,  573.  Periods  of  Lat. 
literature,  640. 

Periphrastic  conjugat.,  233;  234;  use, 
466,  N.;  p.  26i,  foot-note  4 ; 476,  1 ; 
in  condit,  sentences,  511,  2.  Peri- 
phrast.  fut.  infin.,  537,  3. 

Peritus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 
of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  3. 

Permisceo  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Perniciosus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Person  of  nouns,  44 ; verbs,  199  ; in 
indir.  disc.,  526. 

Personal  pron.,  183, 1;  184;  use,  446; 
refiexive  use,  448 ; 449.  Pers.  end- 
ings of  verbs,  247.  Pers.  constr.  in 
indir.  questions,  529,  6 ; in  pass, 
voice,  534,  1. 

Personification,  637,  IX. 

Persuading,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II. 

Pertaedet^  pertaesum  est^  constr.,  410, 

IV. ,  notes  1 and  3. 

Pes^  65  in  compds.,  581,  VI.,  1.  Pes 
as  unit  of  measure,  648,  IV. 

Peto^  constr.,  374,  2,  N.  4. 

Phalaecian  verse,  629,  I. 

Phereoratic  verse,  628,  II.  and  IV.-VI. 

Phocais^  a in,  p.  345,  foot-note  1. 

Phonetic  Changes,  19  fi*.  Phonet. 
decay,  p.  12,  foot-note  1. 

Phryx^  decl.,  68. 

Phy,  312,  4. 

Piget^  constr.,  409,  III. ; 410,  IV. 

Pill^  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  3. 

Pix  wants  gen.  plur.,  133,  5 ; w.  short 
increm.,  p.  343,  foot-note  2. 

Place,  adverbs  of,  305,  I.,  IT.,  and 
III.  ; 305,  N.  2,  1).  Endings  of 
designations  of  place,  323.  Constr. 
w.  verbs  meaning  to  place^  380.  N. 
Place  whither^  380;  wTiere^  aat., 
385s  4,  4);  abl.,  425;  locat.,  425, 


II. ; 426  ; whence^  412.  Acbs.  of 
place  for  Eng.  adverbs,  443,  N.  2. 

Plautus,  quantity  of  syllables  in,  578, 
N.  2;  580,  III.,  notes  2-4;  metres, 
633,  HI. 

Pleasing,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  I. 

Plebecula^  formation,  p.  159,  foot- 
note 1. 

Plebs^  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 

Plenty,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  410,  V. ; 
421,  II.  ; 421,  N.  1 ; w.  adjs.  of, 
421,  II. 

Pllnus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Pleonasm,  636,  III. 

Pluperfect,  197;  222,  II.  Plup. 
indie,  j 472 ; 476,  2 ; in  seq.  of  tenses, 
493 ; in  temp,  clauses,  518,  N.  2 ; 
521,  II.,  1.  Plup.  subj.,  482;  in 
subj.  of  desire,  483,  2;  in  seq.  of 
tenses,  493;  495,  I.;  496,  II.,  (2); 
in  condit.,  507,  III.;  509,  N.  3; 
510 ; 513,  X.  1 ; in  concess.,  515,  II., 
3 ; in  temp,  clauses,  518,  1 ; 519,  2, 
N.  1 ; 520,  II. ; 521,  II.,  2 ; in  indir. 
disc.,  527,  2 ; 527,  II.  and  III. ; 527, 
N.  2. 

Plural,  44  ; wanting,  130.  Plur. 
for  sing.,  130,  3 ; 446,  N.  2.  Plur, 
w.  change  of  meaning,  132.  -E  in 
Greek  plur.,  581,  111.,  1.  -Is  in 
plur.,  581,  VIII.,  1. 

Plurimi^  indef.  num.,  175,  N.  3 ; gen. 
of  price,  p.  213,  foot-note  2. 

Plus^  165,  N.  1 ; without  quam^  417, 
1,  N.  2.  Pluris^  constr.,  p.  213, 
foot-note  2 ; 405.  Quant,  of  increm. 
oi  plus ^ 585,  V.,  2. 

Poetical  dat.,  380,  4 ; 385,  4;  388,  4. 

Pollux^  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  V.,  2. 

Polypus^  u in,  581,  IX.,  3,  N. 

Polysyndeton,  636,  III.,  1. 

Pondo^  648,  I. 

Pone  w.  acc.,  433. 

Pono^  constr.,  380,  N.  0 m posui^ 
positum^  592,  2. 

Por^  insep.  prep.,  308.  Por  for  port^ 
344,  6. 

Porticus,  gend.,  118,  (1). 

Portus^  decl.,  117,  1,  2). 

Posco  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Position,  syllables  when  long  by,  p. 
338,  foot-note  3. 

Positive,  160 ; wanting,  166.  Pos.  for 
compar.,  444,  2,  N.  3. 

Possessive  pronouns.  185  ; w.  gen., 
363,  4,1);  398,3;  for  gen.,  396,  II., 
N. ; 401,  N.  3 ; w.  refert  sen.&  inter  est., 
408,  I.,  2.  Use  of  poss.  pron.,  447  ; 
refiex,  448 ; 449.  Possessive  compds., 
343,  III.  Possessive  gen.,  396,  I. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


415 


Possessor,  dat.  of,  387. 

Possum^  in  conclus.,  511,  1,  N.  2 ; w. 
pres,  infin.,  537,  1. 

Post  in  compds.,  344,  5 ; w.  dat.,  386. 
Post^  denoting  interval  of  time,  430. 
Post  w.  acc.,  433 ; 433,  I. 

Post-classical j)eriod,  640,  III. 

Postea^  304,  IV.,  N.  2;  in  series,  554, 
I.,  N.  4. 

Posteaquam.^  311,  1 ; in  temp,  clauses, 
518. 

Posterus.^  compar.,  163,  3. 

Posticus.  % in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 

Postis.^  decL,  62,  IV. 

Postmodum.,  304,  I.,  2. 

Postpositive,  554,  III.,  4;  554,  V.,  3. 

Postquam  in  temp,  clauses,  518;  w. 
• perf.  indie.,  p.  260,  foot-note  2. 

Postremo  in  series,  554,  I.,  N.  2. 

Postremus.,  force  oi,  440,  N.  2 ; 442,  N. 

Postridie yi.  gen.,  398,^  5 ; w.  acc.,  437, 
1.  Postridie  quam  in  temp,  clauses, 
518,  N.  3.  X in  postridie^  p.  341, 
foot-note  2. 

Postulo.,  const!*.,  374,  2 ; p.  274,  foot- 
note 1. 

Potens y.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Potential  subj.,  485 ; 486  ; in  declar. 
sentences,  486,  I. ; in  interrog.  sen- 
tences, 486,  II. ; in  subord.  clauses, 
486,  III. 

Potior  w.  gen.,  410,  V.,  3;  w.  abl., 
421,  L;  w.  acc.,  421,  N.  4;  in 
gerund,  constr.,  544,  N.  5. 

Potus  w.  act.  meaning,  257,  N.  2. 

Prae  in  compds.,  170,  1 ; w.  dat.,  386. 
I¥ae  w.  abb,  434;  434,  I.  Quant. 
of  prae  in  compds.,  576,  1.,  1 ; 594, 4. 

Praecipio.,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 

Praecox.,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  3. 

Praecurro.,  constr.,  p.  202, foot-note  1. 

Praeditus.,  constr.,  420,  N.  1,  4). 

Praenomen,  649  ; abbreviated,  649, 1. 

Praesente  w.  plur.,  438,  6,  N. 

Praesto,  praestolor,  constr.,  p.  202, 
foot-note  1. 

Praeter  in  compds.  w.  acc.,  372.  Prae- 
ter w.  acc.,  433  ; 433,  I. 

Praeterea  in  series,  554,  I.,  N.  2. 

Praeut,  311,  2. 

Predicate,  356,  2 ; simple,  360  ; com- 
plex, 361 ; modified,  361,  1.  Pred. 
nouns,  360,  N.  1;  362;  for  dat., 
390,  N.  2.  Pred.  adjs.,  360,  N.  1; 
438,  2.  Pred.  acc.,  373,  1.  Pred. 
gen.,  401  ff. ; varieties,  402*  verbs 
with,  403  fi". ; pred.  gen.  of  price, 
404  ; 405.  Pred.  abl.,  421,  N. 
4.  Pred.  after  infin.,  536,  2.  Infin. 
as  pred.,  539,  I.  Predicates  com- 


pared, 535,  I.,  6.  Position  of  pred., 
560. 

Predicative  roots,  314,  I. 
Prepositions,  307;  insep.,  308  ; in 
compds.,  344,  5 and  6.  Compds. 
w.  acc.,  372;  w.  two  aces.,  376;  w. 
dat.,  386.  Preps,  in  expressions  of 
time,  379,  1 ; 429,  1 and  2 ; 430 ; 
of  place,  380 ; 412 ; 425  ; of  motion 
or  direction,  384,  3,  1) ; denoting 
for,  384,  3,  3) ; of  agency,  388,  2. 
Preps,  after  adjs.,  391,  II.,  1 and  3. 
Prep,  with  oly.  for  obj.  gen.,  396, 

111.,  N.  1 ; for  part,  gen.,  397,  3,  N. 
3 ; for  gen.  w.  adjs.,  400,  2 and  3 ; 
for  gen.  after  verbs,  407,  N.  2 ; 410, 

1.,  2 ; 410,  II.,  3 ; aftoirfert  and  in- 
terest, 408,  I.,  3 ; 408,  IV. ; express- 
ing penalty,  410,  III. ; separation, 
source,  cause,  413  ; 414,  N.  1. ; 415 ; 
416,  I. ; after  compar.,  417,  notes  3 
and  5 ; denoting  accompaniment, 
419,  I. ; manner,  419,  III.  Cases 
w.  preps.,  432  ff. ; acc.,  433  ; abl., 
434 ; acc.  or  abl.,  435.  Special  uses 
of  p’eps.,  433,  I.;  434,  I.;  435, 

I.  Preps,  originally  adverbs,  436. 
Adverbs  as  preps.,  437.  Preps  w. 
infin.,  533,  3,  N.  4;  w.  ger.,  542, 
III. ; 542,  IV.,  (2) ; w.  gerund, 
const!’.,  544,  2.  Prep,  between  adj. 
and  noun,  565,  3.  Position  of 
preps.,  569,  II.  Quant,  of  insep. 
preps.,  594,  2.  Monosyllabic  preps, 
repeated,  636,  III.,  6;  other  preps., 
636,  III.,  6,  N. 

Presbyter,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

Present,  197;  198,.  I.,  1;  222,  I. 
Pres,  stem,  250;  251.  Pres,  indie., 
466  ; 467 ; of  gen.  truths,  customs, 
467,  II.  Hist,  pres.,  467,  III. ; in 
temp,  clauses,  518,  N.  1.  Pres, 
subj.,  479 ; in  condit.,  507,  II. ; 
509  ; 513,  N.  1 ; in  concess.,  515, 

11.,  2;  in  indir.  disc.,  525,  1 ; 527, 

II.  P res.  imperat.,  487,  1.  Pres, 
infin.,  537.  Pres,  particip.,  550. 
Pres,  perf.,  197,  N.  1 ; 198,  I.,  2j 
471,  I.  Pres,  system,  222,  I.  -Is 
in  pres,  subj.,  581,  VIII.,  4. 

Priapeian  verse,  629,  II. 

Price,  gen.  of,  404;  405  ; abl.,  422. 
Prldie,  locat.,  120,  N.  ; w.  gen.,  398, 
5;  w.  acc.,  437,  1.  Prldie  quam 
in  temp,  clauses,  520,  N.  2.  ^ in 
prldie,  p.  241,  foot-note  2. 

Primary  stems,  315 ; 317.  Prim. 

suffixes,  p.  153^  foot-note  6 ; . 320. 
Prlmum,prlmb,  in  series,  554, 1.,  N.  2. 
Princeps,  decl.,  57. 


416 


INDEX  OF  subjects. 


Principal  parts  of  verbs,  202 ; 220 ; 
257-288.  Prin.  clauses,  348,  N. 
2;  in  indir.  disc.,  523;^  supplied 
by  particip.,  549,  5.  Prin.  tenses, 
198,  I. ; in  seq.,  491  ff.  Prin.  ele- 
ments of  sentence,  357,  1. 

Prior primus.,  166  ; rendered  by  relat. 
clause,  442,  N.  ; by  adverb,  443,  N. 
1,  (2). 

Priusquam.,  311,  1 ; in  temp,  clauses, 
520. 


Prwo^  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Pro.,  312,  3 ; in  hiatus,  608,  II.,  1. 

Pro ^ prod.,  in  compds.,  344,  5 ; pro  in, 
594,  5.  Compds.  w.  dat.,  386.  Pro 
w.  abb,  434  ; 434,  I.  ; expressing  in 
defence  of.,  in  berialr  of.,  384,  3,  2). 
Pro  w.  ger.,  p.  316,  foot-note  1. 

Proceleusmatics,  633,  III.,  2,  N.  1. 

Proclitics,  18,  1,  N.  1. 

Proclivis  without  superlat. , 168,  3 ; 
w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Procul  w.  abb,  437,  2. 

Prod  in  compos.,  344,  5. 

ProJiibeo.,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1. 

Prohibesso  fox  prohibuero.,  240,  4. 

Prohibitions,  subj.  in,  484,  IV.,  w. 
N.  1 ; imperat.,  487,  2,  2). 

Proinde.,  310,  4. 

Prolepsis,  440,  2 ; 636,  IV.,  3. 

Pronominal  roots,  314,  II. 

Pronouns,  182  ff. ; pers.,  183, 1 ; 184 ; 
substant.,  p.  70,  foot-note  3;  case- 
endings,  184,  1;  possess.,  185;  de- 
mon., 186;  relat.,  187;  interrog., 
188;  indef.,  189;  190;  correlat., 
191.  Prons.  as  adjs. , 438, 1.  Agree- 
ment of  pron.,  445.  Use  of  pers. 
pron.,  446  ; possess.,  447  ff. ; renex., 
448;  449;  demon.,  450  If.;  relat., 
453;  interrog.,  454;  indef.,  455  ff. 
Pron.  in  indir.  disc.,  526.  Prons. 
brought  together,  569,  I.,  2.  Pron. 
redundant,  636,  III.,  7. 

Pronunciation  of  Latin,  Eoman,  5 ff. ; 
Eng.,  9 ff. ; Continental,  15. 

Prope  w.  acc.,  433;  433,  1. ; w.  perf. 
indie.,  471,  2;  w.  hist,  tenses  of  in- 
die., 511,  1,  N.  4. 

Proper  nouns,  39,  1 ; plur.  of,  130,  2. 

Propinquus  without  superlat.,  168,  3 ; 
constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1 and  3. 

Propior.^  proximus.,  166;  w.  acc.,  391, 
2;  433,  I.,  N.  2;  w.  force  of  Eng. 
adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Popius  w.  acc.,  437,  1 ; 433,  I.,  N.  2. 

Proportionals,  173,  2. 

PXprius.,  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1 
and  3. 

P'opter  w.  acc.,  433  ; 433,  I. 


Poptered.,  554,  IV.,  2. 

Prosody,  574  if.  ; quant.,  575  ff. : 
versification,  596  ff.  ; figures  of  pros., 
608. 

Prosopopeia,  637,  IX. 

Posper.,^  deeb,  150,  N.,  1). 

Prospicio.,  constr.,  385,  1. 

Potinus.,  p.  145,  foot-note  5. 

Pout.,  311,  2. 

Povideo.,  constr.,  385,  1. 

Pbvidus.,  compar.,  164;  w.  gen.,  p. 
210,  foot-note  3. 

Poxime  w.  acc.,  433,  I.,  N.  2 ; 437,  1 
Poximus.,  see  Propior. 

Pudens.,  deeb,  157 ; w.  gen.,  p.  210, 
foot-note  3 ; w.  force  of  Eng.  ad- 
verb, 443,  N.  1,  (1). 

-pte,  pronouns  in,  185,  N.  2. 

Pudet.,  constr.,  409,  III. ; 410,  IV. 
Pudicus.,  I in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 
Per.,  deeb,  51. 

Pugno  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 
Puppis.,  deeb,  62,  III. 

Purpose,  dat.  of,  384,  1,3);  subj.  of, 
497  ff‘. ; object  clauses,  498 ; peculi- 
arities, 499.  Infill,  of  purpose,  533, 

II.  ; gerund,  542,  I.,  N.  2 ; 542, 

III. ,  X.  2;  gerundive,  544,  2,  N. 
2;  supine,  546;  particip.,  549,  3. 
Position  of  clauses  of  purpose,  572, 
III.,  N. 

Pus,  defect.,  133,  N. 

-pus,  compds.  in,  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  II.,  5,  (3). 

Piita.,  a in,  581,  III.,  3. 

Putor,  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 
Pyrites,  deeb,  50. 

Pyrrhic,  597,  N.  1. 

Pythiambic  stanza,  631,  XVII.  and 
XVIII. 


Q,  qu,  dropped,  36,  3.  Qu  changed 
to  c,  33,  1,  N. 

Qua,  304,  II.,  3 ; 305,  V. 

Quaero,  constr.,  p.  193,  foot-note  1. 
Qudlis,  qudliscumque,  187,  4.  Gujus- 
modl,  etc.,  for  qudlis,  187,  4,  N. 
Qudlis,  interrog.,  188,  4. 

QudlhsliiOet,  191. 

Qudlisqudlis,  187,  4. 

Quality,  abb  of,  419,  II.,  w.  N. 

Quam,  p.  75,  foot-note  1 ; 304,  I.,  4; 
305,  V . ; p.  151,  foot-note  1 ; 311, 
2;  w.  comparat.,  417;  444,  2;  w. 
superlat.,  170,  2,  (2) ; w.  infin.,  524, 
1,  2).  Quam  for  postquam,  430,  X. 
1,  3).  Quam  pro,  417,  1,  N.  5. 
Quam,  quam  ut,  w.  subj.,  502,  2. 
Quam  qud  w.  subj.,  503,  II.,  3, 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


m 


Quam  sij  513,  II.  Tam—quam^ 
non  minus  — quam^  non  magis — 
quam^  555,  II.,  1.  Nihil  aUud 
quam^  555,  III.,  1. 

Quamdiu^  311,  1. 

Quamohrem^  554,  IV.,  2. 

Quamquam^  p.  75,  foot-note  1 ; 311, 
4;  in  concess.,  515,  L ; 515,  notes  1 
and  2 ; w.  infin.,  524,  1,  2). 

Quamvis^  311,  4 ; in  concess.,  515,  III.; 

515,  N.  3. 

Quando^  interrog.,  305,  IV.  ; relat., 
311,  1 and  7 ; in  causal  clauses, 

516.  ^ Quando  in  compds.,  594,  8. 

Quandoquidem^  311,  7 ; ^ in,  594,  B. 

Quantity>«,  16 ; 575  ff. ; signs  of,  16, 

N.  3 ; gen.  rules,  576  ff.  Quant, 
in  final  syllables,  579  ff.  ; incre- 
ments, 582  ff.  ; deriv.  endings,  587  ; 
stem  - syllables,  588  ff.  ; syllables 
before  two  consonants  or  a double 
consonant,  651. 

Quantumlihet^  quantumvis^  311,  4. 
QuoMtumvls  in  concess.,  515,  N.  6. 

Quantus^  relat.,  187,  4;  interrog.,  188, 
4;  correlat.,  191.  Quantl^  constr., 
p.  213,  foot-note  2 ; 405. 

Quantusvls^  indef.,  191. 

Quapropter^  554,  IV.,  2. 

Qudre^  304,  II.,  1,  N. ; 554,  IV.,  2 ; e 
in,  p.  341,  foot-note  2. 

Quasi.  311,  2 ; w.  quldam.^  456,  2 ; in 
condit.,  513,  II.  /in  581,  I., 
1 ; a in,  594,  10. 

Qudvls.,  indef,  305,  V. 

Que^  310,  1 ; j).  151,  foot-note  1 ; 554, 
I.  Idem — que^  451,  5.  Que — que., 
et — que.,  que — que — atque.,  neque 
(nec) — que.,  554,  I.,  5.  Position  of 
que,  569,  III.,  4.  Que  lengthened 
in  Vergil,  608,  V.,  N.  2. 

Quercus,  decl.,  119,  4. 

Queror  w.  infin.,  p.  310,  foot-note  2. 

Questioning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  374, 
N.  3. 

Questions,  351 ; double,  353 ; delibe- 
rat. in  indir.  disc.,  523,  II.,  1,  N. ; 
rhetor.,  p.  297,  foot-note  2;  indir., 
528,  2 ; 529,  I. 

Qul,  relat.  pron.,  187  ; 453  ; interrog., 
188;  454;  indef,  189;  190;  455; 
correlat.,  191.  Qul  w.  subj.  of  pur- 
pose, 497,  I. ; of  result,  500,  I. ; 503. 
Qul  in  condit.,  507,  2 ; concess.,  515, 
III. ; 515,  N.  4 ; causal  clauses,  517. 
Qul  dicitur,  vocdtur,  453,  7.  Quod 
as  adverb,  acc.,  353,  6.  Quod  in 
restrict,  clauses,  503,  N.  1.  7 in 
cul,  581,  I.,  1. 

Qul,  adverb,  187,  1 ; 188,  2. 

28 


Quia,  311,  7 ; in  causal  clauses,  516; 
w.  relat.,  517,  3.  2);  w.  infin.,  524, 
1,  2).  A in  qma,  581,  III.,  3. 
Qulcumque,  gen.  relat.,  187,  3. 
Quldam,  indef,  190,  2,  1) ; 191 ; use, 
456. 

Quidem  w.  pron.,  446,  N.  1 ; position, 
569,  III. ; 569,  III.,  3. 

Quies,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 
Quilibet,  gen.  indef,  190,  2,  2);  use, 
458. 


Quin,  p.  75,  foot-note  2 : 311,  6 ; w. 
subj.,  500,  II. ; 501,  U.',  2;  504. 

Qulnam,  188,  3. 

Quinarius,  646. 

Qulnqudtrus,  gend.,  118,  (2). 

Qmppe,  p.  75,  foot-note  2;  w.  relat., 
517,  3,  1). 

Quirls,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

Quis,  interrog.,  188;  use,  454;  indef, 
189;  190;  use,  455;  correlat.,  191. 
/ in  quis,  579.  3.  ^ ih  qua,  in- 
def, 579,  3.  Quid  redundant,  636, 
III.,  7. 

Quis  for  quibus,  p.  74,  foot-note  5. 

Quisnam,  188,  3. 

Quispiam,  indef,  190,  2,  1) ; use,  455, 

Quisquam,  indef,  190,  2,  1) ; use,  457. 

Quisque,  gen.  indef,  190,  2,  2) ; use, 
458;  w.  abl.  abs.,  43:L  JN.  3;  w. 
plur.  verb,  461,  3.  Placed  next 
suus  or  sul,  569,  I.,  2. 

Quisquis,  gen.  relat.,  187,  3.  Quid'' 
quid  used  of  persons,  453,  1,  N. 

Quitum,  i in,  590,  1. 

Qulvls,  gen.  indef,  190,  2,  2);  use, 
458  ; Is  in,  581,  VIII.,  3,  N. 

Quo,  304,  II.,  3,  JST. ; 305,  II. ; 311,  5 ; 
w.  part,  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3; 
w.  subj.  of  purpose,  497,  II. 

Quoad,  311,  1;  w.  part,  gen.,  p.  209, 
foot-note  3 ; in  temp,  clauses,  519. 

Quocircd,  554,  IV.,  2. 

Quocumque,  305,  N.  1. 

Quod,  p.  151,  foot-note  1 ; 311,  7 ; in 
causal  clauses,  516. 

^z^o/-clauses,  540,  IV.,  w.  N.  Nisi 
quod,  555,  III.,  1.  See  also  Qul. 

Quoi  for  cui,  quoius  for  cujus,  p.  74, 
foot-note  5. 


Quolibet,  305,  II. 

Quom,  305,  IV. ; p.  151,  foot-notes  1 
and  4 ; 311,  1,  4,  and  7. 

Quominus,  311,  5 ; w.  subj.,  497,  II. ; 
499,  3,  N.  2. 

Quoniam,  composition,  p.  6,  foot-note 
5 ; 311,  7 ; in  causal  clauses,  516 ; 
w.  relat.,  517,  3,  2). 

Quoque,  310,  1;  554,  I.,  4;  position, 
569,  III. ; 0 in,  594,  10. 


418 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Quoquo^  305,  N.  1. 

Quorsum^  305,  II. 

Quot^  relat.,  187,  4;  interrog.,  188,  4; 
correlat.,  191. 

Quotannis^  304,  II.,  1,  N. 

Quotiens^  305,  IV. 

Quotus^  relat.,  187, 4 ; interrog.,  188, 4. 

Quovls^  305,  II. 

Quum^  305,  IV. ; see  Gum. 

E 

E assimilated  to  34,  2 ; dropped,  36, 
3,  N.  3.  Noun-stems  in  /*,  60  ; verb- 
stems  in  supine,  256,  1.  Decl.  of 
nouns  in  77.  Quant,  of  final  syl- 
lables Jn  580,  II.,  w.  N.  2. 

-ra,  -r&,  suffixes,  320. 

Radix.,  decl.,  59. 

Rastrum.,  plur.,  143,  2. 

Ratio.,  circumlocutions  w.,  636,  III., 
10. 

Ratum.,  a in,  590,  1. 

Rams.,  decl.,  62,  II.,  1. 

Re.,  insep.  prep.,  308;  in  compds., 
344,  6 ; 6 in,  594,  2.  Re  for  re,  594, 
2,  N.  3. 

-re  for  ris,  2S’7. 

Eeading,  rnythmical,  607. 

Red/pse,  p.  73,  foot-note  5. 

Eeason,  clauses  expressing,  516. 

Eecollection,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  399,  I., 
2;  gen.  ofger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Recordor  w.  gen.,  406,  II.  ; w.  acc., 
407,  N.  1,  (1) ; w.  abl.  w.  de,  407, 
N.  2. 

Recuso,  constr.,  p.  279,  foot-note  2. 

Red,  insep.  prep.,  308;  in  compds., 
344,  6. 

Eeduplicated  pronouns,  184,  4;  per- 
fects, 255,  I.  Quant,  of  first  two 
syllables  of  trisyllabic  reduplicated 
perfects,  591.  Increm.  of  redupli- 
cated forms  of  verbs,  586,  2.  . 

Eeduplication  in  pres.,  251,  6;  perf., 
255,  I. ; compds.,  255,  I.,  4. 

Refert,  constr.,  406,  III.  ; 408. 

Refertus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Eefiexive  pron.,  184,  2.  Eefiex.  use 
ofpron.,448;  449. 

Eefusing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  505,  II. 

Eegarding,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accs.,  373 ; 
w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2) ; w.  gen., 
403. 

Regno  w.  gen.,  410,  V.,  3. 

Eelative  Pronoun,  187  ; correlat., 
191 ; use,  453.  Abl.  of  relat.  for 
postquam,  430,  N.  2.  Eelat.  at- 
^ tracted,  445,  8.  Eelat.  clause  w. 
subj.  of  desire,  483, 5 ; purpose,  497, 


I. ; result,  500,  I, ; 503 ; to  charae^ 
terize  indef.  or  gen.  anteced.,  503, 
I. ; after  unus,  solus,  etc.,  503,  II., 
1 ; after  dlgnus,  indignus,  idoneus, 
aptus,  503,  II.,  2;  after  comparat, 
w.  quam,  503,  II.,  3.  Eelat.  clause 
in  condit.,  507,  2;  concess.,  515, 

111.,  w.  N.  4;  causal  clause,  517. 
Eelat.  clause  w.  infinit.,  524,  1,  1)  *, 
supplied  by  particip.,  549,  4.  Posi- 
tion of  relat.,  569,  III. ; before  prep., 
569,  II.,  1.  Position  of  relat.  clauses, 
572,  II.,  N. 

Relaxo,  relew,  w.  abl.,  p.  219,  foot- 
note 1. 

Eelieving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  414,  1. 
Relinquo  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 
Reliquus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2.  Reli- 
qui facere,  401,  N.  4. 

Eemaining,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  501, 

1.. 1, 

Eemembering,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  407. 
Eeminding,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409, 
I. ; 410,  I. 

Reminiscor  w.  gen.,  406,  II. 

Eepeated  action  denoted  by  imperf. 
indie.,  469,  II.;  plup.  indie.,  618, 
N.  2,  2);  imperf.  or  plup.  subj., 
518,  1. 

Eepelling,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  2. 
Repentinus,  I in,  p.  345,  foot-note  5. 
Reposco  w.  two  accs.,  374,  2. 

Requies,  decl.,  137,  1;  quant,  of  in- 
crem., 585,  III.,  3. 

Res,  decl.,  120;  w.  adjs.,  440,  N.  4. 

Circumlocutions  w.  res,  636,  III.,  10. 
Eesisting,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  I. 
Respuhhea,  decl.,  126. 

Restat  w.  subj.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 
Restis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Eestrictive  clauses  w.  quod,  503,  N.  1. 
Eesult,  subj.  of,  500  ff. ; substant, 
clauses  of,  501 ; peculiarities,  502 ; 
in  relat.  clauses,  503 ; yf.quln,  504 ; 
w.  special  verbs,  505.  Position  of 
clauses  of  result,  572,  III.,  N. 

Rete,  decl.,  63,  2,  (2). 

Eeticentia,  636,  1.,  3 ; 637,  XI.,  3. 
Rex,  decl.,  59  ; quant,  of  increm.,  585, 

111.,  3. 

Rhea,  e in,  577,  I.,  2,  (3). 

Ehetoric,  figures  of,  634,  N. ; 637. 
Ehetorical  questions,  523,  II.,  2. 
Ebythm,  caesura  of,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 
Ehythmic  accent,  599. 

Ehythmical  reading,  607. 

Rldeo  w.  acc.,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 

Eivers,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  L,  2; 
43,  1. 

-ro,  suffiix,  320,  II. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


419 


Kogo  w.  two  accs.,  374,  2;  w.  subj., 
p.  274,  foot-note  1. 

Boma^  decl.,  48,  4. 

Eoman  pronunciation  of  Lat.,  5 ff. 
Eoman  authors,  640.  Eoman  calen- 
dar, 641  ff.  ; money,  weights,  and 
measures,  646  ff.  ; names,  649. 

Eoots,  314.  Eoot-stems,  315. 

Eds  without  gen.  plur. , 133,  5. 

Rostrum.^  rostra.,  132. 

-rs,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  65,  3,  (1) ; 90. 

Eudis  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Eules  of  syntax,  558. 

EuSj  decl.,  64,  N.  3 ; 133,  N. ; constr., 
380,  2,  1).  Eure,  412,  1.  Euriy 
426,  2. 

-rus,  compar,  of  adjs.  in,  163,  3. 

Buturriy  quant,  of  pen.,  590,  1. 

S 

S,  sound,  7 ; 13,  II. ; changed  to  r, 
31 ; dropped,  36,  3,  N.  3 ; "36,  5^  1). 
Stems  in  s,  61.  Decl.  of  nouns  in  5, 
64 ; 65,  3 ; 79  ff.  ; quant,  of  increm., 
585,  I.,  2;  585,  II.,  2.  Final  sylla- 
bles in  s short  before  following  con- 
sonant, 576, 1,  N.  2.  Final  s dropped 
in  poetry,  608,  I.,  N.  3. 

-S^ patronymics  in,  322. 

-sa,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Sacery  compar.,  167,  2;  w.  gen.,  p. 
205,  foot-note  3. 

SaepOy  compar.,  306,  4. 

Sdty  decl.,  133,  5.  Sdly  sdleSy  132.  A 
in  sdly  579,  2 ; quant,  of  increm., 
685,  L,  4,  (3). 

Salix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 

Saluber y decl.,  153,  N.  1,  1). 

Salutdris  without  superlat.,  168,  3; 
w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

SamnlSy  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

Sdne  quam  as  adverb,  phrase,  305, 
N.  4. 

Sapid  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 

Sapphic  verse,  604,  Is.  1 ; 628,  VI. 
and  VII.  Sapphic  stanza,  631,  II. 
and  III. 

Satisy  compar.,  306,  4 ; w.  part,  gen., 
p.  209,  foot-note  3 ; compds.  w.  dat., 
384,  4,  N.  1. 

SatuTYiy  a in,  590,  1. 

Satury  decl.,  150,  N.,  2). 

Saying,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  534,  1,  N. 
1,  (2). 

Scanning,  607,  N. 

Scazon,  p.  361,  foot-note  1. 

Scelus  w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Scidly  i in,  690,  1. 


Sciens  w.  force  of  Eng.  adverb,  443, 
N.  1,  (1). 

Scllicety  304,  IV.,  N.  2. 

-SCO,  inceptives  in,  337. 

Scy  insep.  prep.,  308  ; in  compds.,  344, 
6 ; e in,  594,  k 

Second  decl.,  51  ff.  Sec.  conj.,  207; 
208  ; 225 ; 261  ff. ; 6 in  imperat.,  581, 
IV.,  3.  Sec.  pers.  sing,  of  indef. 
yoUy  484,  IV.,  K.  2. 

Secondary  ttoses,  198,  II.  Secondary 
stems,  315 ; 318.  Second,  suffixes, 
p.  154,  foot-note  4. 

Secundum  w.  acc.,  433  ; 43-k  I- 

SecuriSy  decl.,  62,  III. 

SecuSy  ‘sex,’  defect.,  134.  SecuSy 
‘ otherwise,’  p.  145,  foot-note  5. 

Sed  for  sdy  184,  5.  Sedy  insep.  prep., 
308  ; in  compds,  344,  6. 

Sedy  310,  3;  554,  III.,  2.  Ndn  sdlum 
(non  modo  or  non  tantum) — sed 
etiamy  554,  I.,  5.  Sedy  sed  tameUy 
resumptive,  554,  IV.,  3.  Position 
of  sed  in  poetry,  569,  III.,  N. 

SedeSy  gen.  plur.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

Sedtameiiy  554,  III.,  3. 

Seeming,  pred.  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  403. 

Selling,  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  405. 

Semely  p.  145,  foot-note  4. 

SementiSy  decl.,  62,  III. 

Semi-deponents,  268,  3 ; 283  ; 465, 
N.  2. 

SemineXy  defect.,  159,  II. 

Semi- vowels,  3,  II.,  1. 

Senarius,  603,  N.  6 ; 622. 

SendtuSy  decl.,  119,  3. 

Sending,  two  dats.  w.  verbs  of,  390, 
N.  1,  2). 

Seneca,  metres,  633,  II.,  notes  2 and  3. 

SeneXy  decl.,  66  ; compar.,  168,  4. 

Sentences,  syntax,  345  ff. ; classifica- 
tion, 345  ff.  ; simple,  347  ; 357  ; 
complex,  348  ; 359  ; compound,  349  ; 
declarat.,  350;  in  in  dir.  disc.,  523, 
I. ; imperat.,  354.  See  also  Exclama- 
tory y InterrogatirCy  Conditional. 

Sepaeation,  dat.  w\  verbs  of,  385,  4, 
2).  Abl.  of  separat.,  413  ; 414. 
Separat,  producing  emphasis,  561, 

Sepse  for  sly  18^  5. 

Sequence  of  Tenses,  491  ff.  ; pecu- 
liarities, 495. 

Sequitur  w.  subj.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 

Series,  how  begun  and  continued,  554, 
L,  N.  2. 

SerieSy  defect.,  122,  2. 

Serving,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  I. 

Servus y decl.,  51. 

Sescentl  used  indefinitely,  174,  4. 


420 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


S^e  for  184,  4. 

Sesterces,  847. 

Sestertium,  sestertium,  647,  III.  and 

Sestertius,  646  j 647. 

Setius^  quo  seUus  for  quominus^  497, 
2,  N. 

8eu^  310,  2. 

Ships,  gend.  of  names  of,  53,  1,  (2). 

Short  s}^llables,  575. 

Shortening  of  vowels,  21. 

Showing,  two  aces.  w.  verbs  of,  373. 
derivat,  and  meaning,  p.  73,  foot- 
note 2 * 311,  3 ; p.  281,  foot-note  2 ; 
in  condit.,  507  if.  ; w.  perf.  indie., 
471,  5 ; w.  plup.  indie.,  472,  2 ; w. 
subj.  of  desire,  483,  1.  Si  in  con- 
cess.,  515,  II.  Si  = to  see  whether, 
529, 1,  N.  1.  Si  quidem^  507,  3,  N.  2. 

-si,  suffix,  320,  II.  -Si  in  Greek  dats. , 
68,  5 ; ^ in,  581,  I.,  1. 

Slo,  p.  73,  foot-note  2;  304,  III.,  2; 
305,  V.;  551,  N.  2;  redundant, 
636,  III.,  7. 

Slcut^  slcuti^  311,  2. 

Siem  for  sim^  204,  2. 

-silis,  adjs.  in,  333. 

Silver  age,  640,  II.,  2. 

Silvester^  decl.,  153,  N.  1,  1). 

-sim  in  perf.  subj.,  240,  4;  in  ad- 
verbs, 304,  I.,  1. 

-sim4,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  9. 

Simile,  637,  I. 

Similis^  compar.,  163,  2 ; w.  dat.,  p. 
205,  foot-note  1 ; w.  gen.,  p.  205, 
foot-note  3. 

-simo,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  9. 

Simple  sentence,  347  ; 357.  Simp,  ele- 
ments, 357,  2;  subject,  358  ; pred., 
360.  Simple  words,  313,  N.  2. 

Simula  p.  145,  foot-note  4 ; 311,  1 ; w. 
abl.,  437,  2.  Simul  atque^  do  in 
temp,  clauses,  518 ; w.  perf.  indie., 
471,4. 

Simuldc^  simulatque^  311,  1 ; in  temp, 
clauses,  518  ; w.  perf.  indie.,  471,  4. 

Sln^  311,  3 ; in  condit.,  507  ff.  ; p. 
282j  foot-note  1.  Sin  aliter^  552,  3. 

-sin  in  Greek  dat.  plur.,  68,  5. 

/Sme  w.  abl.,  434. 

Singular,  44 ; wanting,  131. 

Sinistra^  constr.,  425,  2. 

Sino^  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1.  I'm 
situm^  590,  1. 

Siquidem^  311,  7 ; 507,  3,  N.  2 ; quant, 
of  first  syllab.,  594,  10. 

Sitio  w.  acc.,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 

Sitis^  deck,  62,  II.,  1. 

Slve,  310,  2;  554,  II.,  3. 

Size,  gen.  of,  419,  2,  1). 


Skill,  gen.  w.  adjs.  of,  399,  L,  2;  gen 
of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Smell,  acc.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III. 

-so,  suffix,  320,  II.  So  in  fut.  perf.. 
240,  4. 

Socer ^ deck,  51,  4,  3). 

Socio  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Sol^  deck,  60  ; 133,  5 ; b in,  579,  2. 

Solum ^ non  solum — sed  etiam  (verum 
etiam),  554,  I.,  5. 

Solus^  deck,  151 ; for  Eng.  adverb, 
443,  N.  1,  2.  Gen.  of  solus  w.  pos- 
sess., 398,  3.  Solus  qul  w.  subj., 
503,  II.,  1. 

Solvb,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

‘ Son,’  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398,  1,  N. 
2.  Name  of  adopted  son,  649,  3. 

Sonants,  3,  Ik,  5,  1 ; 3,  N.  1,  Ik,  1. 

Sons,  defect.,  159,  II. 

-sorius,  0 in,  587,  III.,  4. 

Sors,  abk,  64,  N.  3. 

Sotadean  verse,  626,  N.  2. 

Source,  abk  of,  413 ; 415. 

Space,  acc.  of,  379. 

Sparing,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II. 

Special  constr.  w.  infin.,  539.  Gen. 
in  spec,  constr.,  398. 

^ecies,  deck,  122,  2. 

Specification,  acc.  of,  378  ; abk,  424. 

Specimen  without  plur.,  130,  1,  4). 

Specus,  deck,  117,  1,  2);  p.  50,  foot- 
note 1 ; gend.,  118,  (2). 

Speech,  parts  of,  38.  Figures  ot 
speech,  634  IF. 

Spes,  deck,  122,  2. 

^Jiinx,  deck,  p.  38,  foot-note  3. 

Spirants,  3,  II.,  4,  2. 

Spolib,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Spondaic  line,  610,  3. 

Spondee,  597,  I. 

Square  measure,  Eom.-,  648,  V. 

Stadium,  648,  IV.,  N, 

Stanza,  606.  Stanzas  of  Horace,  631. 

Statub,  constr.,  498,  I.,  N. ; p.  274, 
foot-note  1. 

Stem  in  deck,  46.  Stem-characteris- 
tic, stem-ending,  46,  3.  Stem  in 
Deck  I.,  48,  1;  Deck  Ik,  51,  1; 
Deck  III.,  57,  1 ; 58,  1 ; 59,  1 ; 60, 
1 ; 61,  1 ; 62, 1 : 64, 1, 1) ; 66, 1 and 
3 ; 69-98 ; Decl.  IV.,  116,  1 ; Deck 
V.,  120,  1.  Stems  of  verbs,  202, 
notes  1 and  2 ; 203,  N.  2 ; formation 
of,  249  ff.  Stems  of  words,  315  IF. 
Stem-syllables,  quant.,  588  IF. ; va- 
riation in,  593,  1.  Primitives  w, 
long  stem-syllaoles,  595. 

Steritis  w.  gen.,  p.  219,  foot-note  4. 

Stirpe,  constr.,  415,  II.,  N. 

Stitl,  i in,  590,  1. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


421 


Sto  w.  abi.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1.  E in 
sutl,  a in  statum 590,  1. 

Strigilis,,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Striving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  II. 

St^ixw.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 

Strong  caesura,  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 

Strues,,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

Studeo,,  constr.,  498,  II.,  N.  1 ; p.  274, 
foot-note  2. 

Studiosus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3 ; 
'w.  gen.  of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Suh  in  compds.,  344,  5;  dat.,  386. 
Suh  w.  acc.  or  abl.,  435 ; 435,  N.  1 ; 
435,  I. 

Subject,  356,  1 ; simple,  358 ; com- 
plex, 359  ; modified,  359,  N.  1.  Sub], 
nom.,  368.  Subj.  indef.,  518,  2. 
Subj.  acc.,  536.  Infin.  as  subj., 
538.  Subject  clauses,  501, 1.  Sub- 
jects compared,  535,  5.  Dat.  w. 
adjs.  signifying  subject,,  391, 1.  Posi- 
tion of  subj.,  560. 

Subjective  gen.,  396,  II. 

Subjunctive,  196,  II.  Syntax  of  subj., 
477  fi*. ; tenses,  478  n.  ; sequence, 
490  fi*.  Subj.  in  prin.  clauses,  483 
fi*. ; in  subord.  clauses,  490  fi*.  Subj. 
of  desire,  483  ; 484 ; potent. , 485 ; 
486 ; of  purpose,  497  n. ; of  result, 
500  fi*. ; in  condit.,  507  A ; in  con- 
cess.,  515;  in  causal  clauses,  516; 
617 ; in  temp,  clauses,  519  n . ; in 
indir.  disc. , 523  fi*. ; in  indir.  clauses, 
529  fi.  ; in  indir.  questions,  529,  I. 
Subj.  in  questions  of  surprise,  486, 
II.,  N.  Subj.  of  desire  for  imperat., 
487,  4.  -Is  in  subj.,  581,  VIII.,  4; 
-I5,  581,  VIII.,  5. 

Subordinate  Clauses,  348,  N.  2 ; 490 
fi*.  ; in  indir.  disc.,  524.  Subord. 
conjs.,  311 ; 555 ; elements,  357,  1 ; 
position,  572. 

SuDstantive  pron.,  p.  70,  foot-note  8. 
Substant,  clauses,  532  fi.  ; 540  ; of 
purpose,  499,  3 ; of  result,  501.  Sud- 
stantives,  see  Nouns. 

Subter  w.  acc.  or  abl.,  435. 

Suffixes,  46 ; case-suffix,  46,  1.  Suf- 
fixes in  format,  of  words,  313  fi*. 
Piimary  suffixes,  320. 

Sul,,  decl.,  184 ; use,  448  ; 449 j,  placed 
next  quisque,,  569,  I.,  2.  7 in  sibl,, 
581,  I.,  2. 

Suitableness,  constr.  w.  adjs.  of,  391, 
I. ; 391.  IL,  1,  2). 

Sum  w.  dat.,  387  ; two  dats.,  390,  N. 
1,  1);  pred.  gen.,  403;  404;  abl., 
415,  III.,  N.  1 ; p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Summus,,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 


Supellex^  decl.,  64,  N.  3;  130,  1,  4). 

Super  in  compds.  w.  acc.,  372;  dat., 
386  ; abl.,  434,  N.  1.  Super  w.  acc. 
or  abl.,  435;  435,  N.  2;  435,  I. 

Superlative,  160:  irreg.,  163;  want- 
ing, 168 ; 169  ; lormed  by  mdxime,, 
170.  Superlat.  w.  part,  gen.,  397, 
3 ; p.  209,  foot-note  3.  Use  of  su- 
perlat.,  444. 

Superne,,  e final  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Superus,,  compar.,  163,  3. 

Supine,  200,  III. ; endings,  248.  Su- 
pine system,  222,  III.  Supine  stem, 
256.  Supine  wanting,  262,  notes  1 
and  2 ; 265  ; 266 ; 267,  3 ; 271, 1 and 
2 ; 272,  1 ; 272,  notes  1 and  2 ; 276 ; 
278  ; 281 ; 282 ; 284 ; 284,  N.  2.  Su- 
pine in  seq.  of  tenses,  495,  IV.  Use 
of  sup. , 545  fif.  ; sup.  in  um,,  545 ; 
546 ; w.  60,  546,  2 ; w.  Irl,,  546,  3 ; 
sup.  in  u.  545  ; 547.  Quant,  of  pen. 
of  dissyllabic  supines,  690. 

Supra  w.  acc.,  433 ; 433,  I. 

Supremus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

Surds,  3,  II.,  5,  2 j 3,  N.  1,  II.,  2. 

-surio,  desideratives  in,  338. 

Surname  in  names  of  Koman  citizens, 
649,  2. 

Sus,,  decl.,  66. 

Suus,,^  185 ; 448 ; 449  ; placed  near 
quisque,,  569,  I,  2. 

Syllabic  caesura,  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 

Syllables,  8;  14;  15,  3;  quant.,  575 
fi*.  Final  syl.  of  verse  either  long 
or  short,  605. 

Syllepsis,  636,  II.,  2. 

Symbols,  num.,  180. 

Synaeresis,  608,  III. 

Synaloepha,  synapheia,  608,  1.,  N.  5. 

Syncopated  pron.,  186,  3. 

Syncope,  608,  VII. ; 635,  2. 

Synecdoche,  637,  IV. 

Synesis,  636,  IV.,  4;  363,  4;  438,  6; 
445,  5 ; 449,  3 ; 461. 

Synizesis,  608,  III.,  N.  3. 

Synopsis  of  Decl.  III.,  69-98.  Syn.  of 
conj.,  223-230. 

Syntax,  345  fi*. ; sentences,  345  ff. ; 
nouns,  362  fi*. ; adjs^  438  fif. ; prons., 
445  fi*.  ; verbs,  460  ff. ; particles,  55l 
ff.  Eules  of  syntax,  558.  Arrang. 
of  words  and  clauses,  559  ff.  Figures 
of  syntax,  634,  N. ; 636. 

Systole,  608,  VI. 

T 

T,  sound,  7 ; 13,  II.  T changed  to 
33,  2 ; assimilated  to  n or  s,  34, 
1 ; dropped  before  5,  36,  2 ; when 


4:22 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


final,  36,  5,  2).  Stems  in  58. 
Gend.  of  nouns  in  111.  T 
changed  to  s in  supine,  256,  1. 
Quant,  of  final  syllables  in  579, 
2;  58p,  II. ; 580,  III.,  N.  2,  1). 

-ta,  -ta,  suffixes,  320.  Nouns  in 
325 

Taedet.^  constr.,  409,  III. ; 410j  IV. 

Taking  away,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  2. 

Tdlis,  186,  4;  correlat.,  191. 

Talpa.^  gend.,  48,  5. 

Jhw,  p.  75,  foot-note  1;  304,  1.,  4; 
305,  V.  ; meaning  and  use,  551,  N. 
2.  Tam — quam.^  555,  II.,  1. 

Tamen^  310,  3;  554,  III.,  2;  compds., 
554,  III.,  3. 

Tametsi^  311,  4;  in  concess.,  515,  II. 

Tandem  in  questions,  351,  4. 

Tanquam^  311,  2.  Tanquam.^  tan- 
quam  si.,  in  condit.,  513,  II. 

Tantisper.,  304,  V.,  N.  2. 

Tantopere.,  meaning  and  use,  551,  N.  2. 

Tantam  abest  ut.,  502,  3.  Non  tan- 
tum— sed  etiam  (verum  etiam),  554, 
l.,5. 

Tantus.,  demonstr.,  186,  4;  correlat., 
191  ; w.  interrog.,  454,  4.  Tanti., 
constr.,  p.  215,  foot-note  2 ; 405. 
Tantum  abest  ut.  502,  3. 

-tar,  suffix,  320,  I. 

-tas,  nouns  in,  325. 

Taste,  acc.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III. 

-tat,  suffix,  p.  157,  foot-note  9. 

Tautology  discriminated  from  pleo- 
nasm, p.  371,  foot-note  1. 

Taxis  for  tetigeris.,  240,  4. 

Teaching,  two  accs.  w.  verbs  of,  374. 

Ted  for  te,  184,  5. 

Tempero.,  constr.,  385,  1. 

Templum.,  decl.,  51. 

Temporal  conjs.,  311,  1 ; 555,  I. 
Temp,  clauses,  518  ft'., ; position, 
572,  II.,  N. 

Tempus  est  w.  infin.,  533,  N.  3. 

Tener.,  deck,  150,  N.,  1). 

Tenses,  197 ; prin.  and  histor.,  198. 
Tense-signs,  242;  243.  Tenses  of 
indic.,  466  ft. ; subj.,  478  ft*. ; im- 
perat., 487  ft.  Seq.  of  tenses,  490 
n.  Tenses  in  temp,  clauses,  518, 
notes  1 and  2 ; in  indir.  disc. , 525. 
Tenses  of  infin.,  537  ; particip.,  550. 

Tento.,  constr.,  498,  II.,  N.  1. 

Tenus.,  p.  145,  foot-note  5;  w.  gen., 
398,  5;  w.  abl.,  434;  after  its  case, 
434,  N.  4 ; 569,  II. 

Ter.,  e in,  579,  3. 

-ter,  suffix,  320,  II. ; p.  155,  foot-note 
1.  Adverbs  in  -ter.,  304,  IV.  Nouns 
in  -ter.,  326 ; deck,  60,  3. 


Terence,  peculiarities  in  ^versification, 
578,  N.  2 ; 580,  III.,  notes  3 and  4 ; 
metres,  633,  III. 

Terminational  compar.,  161  ff. 

Terra.,  constr.,  425,  2.  Terrae.,  locat., 
p.  229,  foot-note  1. 

Terrester.,  deck,  153,  N.  1,  1). 

Testis  sum.,  constr.,  535,  I.,  3. 

Tete  for  te.,  184,  4. 

Tetrameter,  603,  N.  2 ; dactylic,  616. 
Tetrapody,  597,  N.  4. 

Tetrastich,  606,  N. 

Thebais.,^  a in,  p.  345,  foot-note  1. 
Thematic  vowel,  p.  94,  foot-note  1 : 
251 

Thesis,  600. 

Thinking,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  534,  1, 
N.  1,  (2);  535,  1.,  1. 

Third  deck,  55  ft.;  adjs.,  152  ft.;  -o 
in,  581,  II.,  2.  Third  conp,  209  : 
210  ; 227  ; 228 ; 269  ft. 

Threatening,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II. 
-ti,  suffix,  320 ; p.  157,  foot-notes  7 
and  9. 

-tia,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-riote  1. 

Tlbur.,  deck,  66,  4. 

-ticius,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

-tico,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  8. 
-ticus,  adjs.  in,  330,  1. 

-tie,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  1. 

-tills,  adjs.  in,  333. 

-tim,  adverbs  in,  304,  I.,  1. 

-tim^,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  9; 

-iima^  p.  157,  foot-note  9. 

Time,  adverlis  of,  305,  N.  2,  2).  Acc. 
of  time,  379  : abk,  429  ; 379,  1. 
Time  denotea  by  preps,  w.  acc., 
379,  1 ; 429,  2;  w.  abk,  429, 1.  Time 
since.,  430,  N.  3.  Adjs.  of  time,  443, 
N.  2.  Time  denoted  by  particip., 
549,  1.  See  also  Temporal  clauses. 
Times  or  morae,  597. 

Timeo.,  constr.,  385,  1 ; p.  274,  foot- 
note 3. 

-timo,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  9. 
-timus,  a,  um.,  suffix,  p.  157,  foot- 
note 9.  Adjs.  in  -timm.,  330,  1. 
-tio,  -tion,  -tioni,  suffixes,  p.  158, 
foot-note  1.  Nouns  in  -tib.,  326. 

Tis  for  tui.,  184,  5. 

Titles,  superlat.  as,  444,  1,  N. 

-tivus,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

Tmesis,  636,  V.,  3. 

‘ To,’  how  translated,  384,  3. 

-to,  suffix,  320,  II. 

-to  for  tor  in  imperat. , 240,  5. 
Tonitrus.,  deck,  117,  1,  3). 

-t6r,  suffix,  320,  II. 

-tor,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1. 
Nouns  in 326  ; as  adjs.,  441,  3. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


423 


toriS.,  -torio,  suffixes,  p.  158,  foot- 
note 4.  0 in  toria.,  587,  III.,  4. 

torium,  -torius,  5 in,  587,  III.,  4. 
Tot^  demon.,  186,  4;  correlat.,  191. 
Totiens.,  805,  IV. 

Totus.,  demon.,  186,  4. 

Totus.,  decl.,  151,  1 ; w.  loc.  abl.,  425, 
2.  Totus  for  Eng.  adverb,  443,  N. 


1,  (2). 

Towns,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  II.,  2; 
constr.,  428  ; whither,  880,  II.  ; 
whence,  412,  II. ; where,  425,  II. 

-tra,  suffix,  320,  1. 

Trador,  constr.,  634,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 

Trans  in  compds.,  344,  5;  w.  acc., 
372;  w.  two  accs.,  376.  Trans  w. 
acc.  , 433  ; 433,  I. 

Transitive  verbs,  193,  I. 

Translation  of  subjunctive,  196,  II. ; 
infin.,  200,  I. 

Trees,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  II.,  2; 
names  of,  in  -us.,  decl.,  119,  2. 

Tres,  decl.,  175. 

Tribrach,  697,  II. 

Tribuo  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 

Tribus.,  decl.,  117,  1,  1);  gend.,  118, 

-trie,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  4. 

Tricolon,  p.  352,  foot-note  8. 

Trihemimeral  caesura, ' p.  356,  foot- 
note 4. 

Trihemimeris,  597,  N.  4. 

Trimeter,  603,  N.  2. 

Tripody,  597,  N.  4. 

Tristich,  606,  N. 

Tristior,  tristis,  decl.,  154.  Tristis 
w.  force  of  Eng.  adverb,  443,  N.  1, 
(1). 

Trisyllabic  reduplicated  perfects, 
quant. -of  first  two  syllables,  691. 

-trix,  nouns  in,  326 ; as  adjs.,  441,  3. 

-tro,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Trochaic  verse,  603,  N.  1 ; 618  ff. ; 
stanza,  631,  X. ; caesura,  p.  356, 
foot-note  4. 

Trochee,  597,  II. ; irrational,  598, 1, 1). 

Tropes,  637,  V.,  N. 

-trum,  nouns  in,  326. 

Truths,  gen.,  expressed  by  pres,  in- 
die., 467,  II.;  in  condit.,  508,  5; 
511,  1. 

Tt  changed  to  st,  or  s,  35,  3. 

Tu,  deej.,  184.  7 in  tibl,  581,  I.,  2. 

-tu,  suffixes,  320. 

-tua,  -tudon,  suffixes,  p.  158,  foot- 
note 3. 

TuU,  u in,  590,  1. 

Turn,  p.  75,  foot-note  1 ; 304,  I.,  4 ; 
305,  IV. ; in  series,  554,  I.,  N.  2. 
Turn — turn.,  cum — turn,  554,  I.,  5, 


-turn,  nouns  in,  323. 

Tumultus,  decl.,  119,  3. 

Tunc,  304j  I.,  4 ; 305,  IV. 

-tuo,  guffix,^.  158,  foot-note  1. 
-tur^,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  4. 

Nouns  in  -tura,  326. 

-turid,  desideratives  in,  338. 

-turo,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  4. 
Turpis  w.  supine,  547,  N.,  1. 

Turris,  decl.,  62. 

-turus,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1. 
Tus,  defect.,  133,  N. 

-tus,  adverbs  in,  304,  IV. ; nouns  in, 
326  ; adjs.  in,  328. 

-tus,  nouns  in,  324  ; 325. 

Tussis,  decl.,  62. 

-tut,  -tuti,  suffixes,  p.  158,  foot-note 

3. 

Tuus,  possess.,  185. 

Two  accs.,  373  ; 374.  Two  dats.,  390. 
Two  negatives,  553.  Two  copula- 
tives, 554,  I.,  5. 


U 

U,  u,  sound,  5 ; 10  ; 11.  U w.  sound 
of  w,b,  4 ; 10,  4,  5).  U parasitic, 
p.  4,  foot-note  5 ; interchanged 
with  V,  29 ; dropped,  36,  4.  U~ 
nouns,  116.  Nouns  in  u,  d_efect., 
134.  Sup.  in  u,  545  ; 547.  U or  u, 
final,  580,  1. ; in  increments  of  decl., 
585  ; 585,  V.  ; conj.,  586  ; 586,  IV. 
U as  consonant,  608,  III.,  N.  2. 

-u,  suffix,  320. 

Uber,  neut.  plur.,  158,  1. 

Ubi,  304,  III.,  2 ; 305,  1.  ; p.  151,  foot- 
note 1 ; 311,  1 ; w.  part,  gen.,  p. 
209,  foot-note  ^3 ; in  temp,  clauses, 
518;  471,4.  7 in  ubL  581,  I.,  2; 
quant,  of  ult.  in  compds.,  594,  9. 
Ubicumque,  ubiubi,  p.  75,  foot-note  3 ; 

305,  N.  1. 

Ubiuls,  305,  I. 

-ubus  for  -ibus,  117, 1. 

-uceus,  u in^  587,  III.,  1. 

-uc^S,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

-udg,  u in,  587,  I.,  2. 

-ug5,  nouns  in,  324,  N.  ; u in,  587, 

l.,2. 

Ui,  sound,  12,  2. 

-uis  for  -us,  117,  2. 

-ula,  nouns  in,  321 ; u in,  587,  II.,  3. 
-ulentus,  u in,  587,  IV.,  1. 

-ulis,  u in,  587,  I.,  4. 

Ullus,  decl.,  151,  1 ; use,  457._ 
Ulterior,  ultimus,  166.  Ultimus, 
_ force  of,  440,  N.  2;  442,  N. 

Ultra  w.  acc.,  433 ; 433,  I. 

-ulum,  -ulus,  in  nouns,  321;  in 


424 


INLEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


adjs.,  332;  333,  5;  compar.,  169,  3. 
U in  -ulum^  -ulus^  587,  II.,  3. 

-um  in  gen.  plur.  of  nouns,  57 ; p. 
36,  foot-notes  3 and  4 ; p.  38,  foot- 
note 2;  67;  adjs.,  158,  2.  Nouns 
in  -iis  and  -wm,  neteroclites.  139 ; 
heterogeneous,  144.  Adverbs  in 
-■wm,  804,  L,  3,  1);  num.,  181,  N. 
2;  superlat.,  306,  6.  Supine  in 
-um^  545 ; 546 ; w.  eb^  546,  2 ; w. 
546,  3. 

-um  for  drum^  49,  3 ; brum^  52,  3. 
-una,  u in,  587,  L,  5. 
lincia,  646,  1,  N.  ; 646,  3,  1)— 4). 
Unclothing,  acc.  w.  verbs  of,  377. 
-uncula,  -unculus,  diminutives 
in,  321,  3. 

Unde,  undelibet.  305,  III. 

-undus,  -undi,  for  -endus^  -endi^ 
239. 

Unguis.,  dec!.,  62,  IV. 

Union,  dat.  w.  verbs  denoting,  385,  4, 
3). 

Unlike,  gen.  w.  adjs.  meaning,  391, 

11.,  4,  (2). 

Unquam.,  305,  IV. 

-unt,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Unus.,  deck,  151,  1 ; 175;  followed  by 

abl.  w.  prep.,  p.  209,  foot-note  1 ; 
gen.  of,  w.  possess.,  398,  3.  Umis 
w.  force  of  Eng.  adverb,  443,  N.  1, 
(2).  Unus  qul  w.  subj.,  503,  II.,  1. 

-unus,  u in,  587,  I.,  5. 

Unusquisque.,  decl.,  p.  77,  foot-note  1. 
-uo,  suffix,  320,  II.  Denom.  verbs 
in  -ub.  335. 

-ur,  suffix,  320,  II. ; decl.  of  adjs.  in, 
150,  N. ; gend.  of  nouns  in.  111 ; 
114. 

Urbs.,  deck,  64. 

Urging,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  499,  2. 
-urio,  u in,  587,  IV.,  2. 

-us,  suffix,  320,  II. ; adverbs  in,  304, 

1.,  3,  1);  nouns  in,  326,  2;  327. 
Us  for  e in  voc.,  52,  2.  Deck  of 
nouns  in  us^  51 ; 85 ; 116  ; in  ws,  84 ; 
quant,  of  increm.,  585,  V.,  1.  Deck 
of  names  of  trees  in  xls.,  119,  2. 
Neuters  in  us..  Deck  II.,  51,  7. 
Gend.  of  nouns  in  us.,  us..  Deck  III. , 
111;  115.  Nouns  in  us  and  um., 
heteroclites,  139  ; heterogeneous, 
144;  145.  Compar,  of  adjs.  in  us 
preceded  by  vowel,  169,  2.  or 
iis  final,  580,  Ilk,  w.  N.  2 ; 581,  IX. 

Useful,  dat.  w.  adjs.  signifying,  391, 
I.  ; ad,  391,  II.,  1,  (2). 

Uspiam,  usquam,  305,  I. 

Usque  w.  preps.,  433,  N.  2,  Usque  w. 

acc. ,  437,  1. 


Usus  w.  abk,  414,  IV. 

Ut,  uU,  304,  III.,  2 ; 305,  V. ; 311 ; p. 
151,  foot-note  1.  Ut~,  ut  prlmum, 

‘ as  soon  as,’  471,  4.  Ut  w.  subj. 
of  desire,  483,  1 : w.  subj.  in  ques- 
tions, 486,  II.,  N. ; w.  subj.  of  pur- 
pose, 497,  II.  ; after  verbs  of  fear- 
ing, 498,  ilk,  N.  1.  Ut  ne,  ut  nbn, 
for  ne,  499,  1.  Ut  omitted,  499,  2; 
502,  1.  Ut  w.  subj.  of  result,  500, 
II.  Ut  si  w.  subj.  in  condit.,  513, 
II.  Ut  in  concess.,  515,  Ilk  Ut — sic, 
ut — ita,  involving  concess.,  515,  N. 
5.  Ut — ita  w.  superlat.,  555,  II.,  1, 
w.  relat.,  517,  3, 1).  in  temp, 
clauses,  518.  Ut  quisque — ita,  458, 
2.  Quant,  of  ult.  of  in  compds., 
594,  9. 

-ut,  deck  of  nouns  in,  78. 

titer,  deck,  65,  1,  2). 

Uter,  deck,  151,  1 ; correlat.,  191. 

Utercunque,  uterlibet,  uterque,  utervis, 
deck,  151,  N.  2.  Uterque,  constr., 
397,  N.  2 ; meaning  and  use,  459, 
4;  w.  plur.  verb,  461,  3.  Is  in 
utervis,  581,  Vllk,  3,  N. 

Uti,  see  Ut. 

-utim,  u in,  587,  I.,  7. 

Utinam  w.  subj.  of  desire,  483,  1. 

Utor,  constr.,  421,  I.  ; 421,  N.  4;  ge^ 
rundive,  544,  2,  N.  5. 

Utpote,  311,  7;  w.  relat.,  517,  3,  1). 

Utrinde,  304,  III.,  N. 

Utrum,  310,  2,  N. ; 311,  8 ; 353. 

-utus,  u in,  587,  kj  7. 

Uu  avoided,  p.  15,  foot-note  1. 

-uus,  adis,  in,  333,  5. 

-ux,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  97 ; -ux,  97, 
N.  1. 

V 

V originally  not  distinguished  from 
u,  2,  5.  Sound  of  v,  7.  V inter- 
changed  w.  u,  29  ; treated  as  guttu- 
ral, 30,  N.  1 ; changed  to  c,  33,  1, 
N. ; dropped,  36,  4. 

-vS;,  suffix,  320,  I. 

Vacuus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Vae,  312,  3 ; w.  dat.,  381,  N.  3,  3). 

Vdh,  interj.,  312,  1. 

Valde  quam  in  adverb,  phrase,  305, 
N.  4. 

Value,  gen.  of,  404.  Gen.  w.  verbs  of 
valuing,  404. 

Vannus,  gend.,  53,  1,  (2). 

Variable  rad.  vowel,  20,  N.  2;  57,  2 ; 
58,1,2);  60,1,2);  61,1,2). 

Variation  in  quant,  of  stem-syllables, 
593,  1. 

Varieties  of  verse,  609, 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


425 


rdSj  deel.,  136,  2. 

Fas,  a in,  579,  3;  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  L,  4,  (2). 

Fates,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

Fe,  insep.  prep. , 308  ; e in,  59^  2. 

Fe,  «76^,  310,  2 ; 554,  II.,  2.  Vel — vel, 

554,  II.,  IN.  Position  of  vel  in  po- 
etry, 569,  III.,  N.  ; in  prose,  569, 
IIL,  4. 

Felut,  311,  2 ; 554,  II.,  2.  Felut,  ve- 
lut  si,  in  condit.,  513,  II. 

Fendlis  w.  abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Fenit  in  mentem  w.  gen.,  406,  N. 

Fenter,  decl.,  65,  1,  2). 

F'er  without  plur.,  130,  1,  4);  quant, 
of  increm.,  585,  III..  3. 

Verb  stems,  format,  of,  249  ff. 

Verbal  endings,  analysis  of,  241  ff. 
Verbal  roots,  314,  I.  Verbal  nouns 
in  u defect.,  134.  Verbal  nouns  w. 
infin.,533,  3,  N.  3. 

Verbs,  Etymology  of,  192  ff.;  classes, 
193;  voic^  mood,  tense,  numb., 
pers.,  194  ff. ; infin.,  ger.,  sup.,  par- 
ticip.,  200  ; conj.,  201  ff . ; prin. 
parts,  202 ; paradigms,  204  ff. ; com- 
parat. view,  213  ff . ; verbal  inflec- 
tions, 220  ff. ; systems,  222 ; synop- 
sis, 223  ff. ; dep.  verbs,  231  ff.  ; 
periphrast.  conj.,  233  ff. ; peculiari- 
ties in  conj.,  235  ff.  ; analysis  of 
verbal  endings,  241  ff.  ; tense-signs, 
242  ff.  ; mood-signs,  244  ff. ; pers. 
endings,  247  ff.  ; format,  of  stems, 
249  ff. ; pres,  stem,  250  ; 251  ; perf. 
stem,  252  ff.  ; sup.  stem,  256 ; clas- 
sification, 257  ff. ; Conj.  1.,  257  ff. ; 
Conj.  II.,  261  ff. ; Conj.  III.,  269  ff*.  ; 
Conj.  IV.,  284  ff.  ; irreg.  verbs,  289 
ff. ; defect.,  297  ff.  ; impers.,  298  ff.  ; 
derivation,  335  ff. ; denom.,  335 ; 
frequent.,  336  ; incept.,  337  ; desid- 
erat., 338;  dimin.,  339;  compds., 
344. 

Verbs,  Syntax  of,  460  ff. ; agree- 
ment, 460  ff.  Verb  omitted,  368, 
3;  523,  L,  N.  Voices,  464;  465. 
Indie,  and  tenses,  466  ff.  Subj.  and 
tenses,  477  ff. ; subj.  in  prin.  clauses, 
483  ff.  Imperat,  and  tenses,  487  ff. 
Subord.  clausesL  490  ff.  ; seq.  of 
tenses,  490  ff.  Purpose,  497  ff. ; re- 
sult, 500  ff. ; condit,  sentences,  506 
ff. ; concess.  clauses,  515 ; causal 
clauses,  516 ; 517 ; temp,  clauses, 
518  ff. ; indir.  disc.,  522  ff.  ; indir. 
clauses,  528  ff.  Infin.,  532  ff.  Sub- 
stant. clauses,  540.  Ger.,  541 ; 542. 
Gerundive,  543  ; 544.  Supines,  545 
ff,  Particip.,  548  ff,  Position  of 


modifiers  of  verb,  567.  -0,  o,  in 
verbs,  581,  II.,  2 ; -d,  581,  III.,  3. 

Fere,  304,  II.,  2. 

Fereor,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  3. 

Vergil,  versification,  630. 

Ferd,  p.  146,  foot-note  1 ; 310,  3 ; 
554,  III.,  2 and  4;  position,  569, 

Verse,  caesura  of,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 

Verses,  601 ; name,  603  ; varieties,  609. 

Versification,  596  ff.  Feet,  597. 
Verses,  601;  names  of,  603;  604. 
Figures  of  pros.,  608.  Varieties  of 
verse,  609. 

Versus,  p.  145,  foot-note  5;  w.  acc., 
433  ; as  adverb,  433,  N.  2 ; position, 
569,  II. 

Verto  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 

Ve7-u,  decl.,  117,  1,  2). 

Verum,  310,  3;  554,  IIL,  2;  non 
solum  (non  modo  or  non  tantum) — 
verum  etiam,  554,  I.,  5.  Verum, 
verum  tamen,  resumptive,  554, 1 V. , 3. 

V'erumtamen,  554j  III.,  3. 

Vervex,  quant,  of  increm. , 585,  III. , 3. 

Vescor,  constr.,  421,  I. ; 421,  N.  4. 

Vesper,  decl.,  51,  4.  Vesper  (for  ves- 
peris), decl.,  62,  N.  2. 

Vespera  without  plur.,  130,  1,  4). 

Vespertinus,  I in,  p.  345,  foot-note  5. 

Fest/rds,  decl.,  185,  N.  3. 

Festrl,  vestrum,  446,  N.  3. 

Veto,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1; 
vetor,  534,  1,  N.  1. 

Vetus,  decl.,  158  ; compar.,  163, 1,  N.  ; 
167,  2. 

Viciniae,  locat.,  p.  229,  foot-note  1. 

Vicinus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Vicis,  defect.,  133,  1. 

Vidi,  l in,  581,  IV.,  3. 

Vldllicet,  304,  IV.,  N.  2.. 

Videor,  constr.,  534,  1,  IST.  1,  (1). 

Vir,  decl.,  51,  4,  1) ; ^ in,  579,  3. 

Virgo,  decl.,  60. 

Virtus,  decl.,  58. 

Virus,  decl.,  51,  7 ; gend.,  53,  2. 

Vis,  decL,  66;  p.  38,  foot-note  4: 
quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

Vixdum,  555,  I.,  1. 

-vo,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Vocative,  irreg.,  52,  2;  68,  3.  Syn- 
tax, 369.  Vbc.  in  exclamat.,  381, 
N.  3,  1).  Position  of  voc.,  569,  VI. 
7 in  Greek  voc.  sing.,  581,  I.,  2;  -d 
in,  581,  III.,  2;  -es  in,  581,  VI.,  3; 
-us  in  plur.,  581,  IX.,  2. 

Voices,  195 ; 464 ; 465. 

Volo  w.  eth.  dat.,  389,  N.  2';  w.  subj., 
p.  274,  foot-note  1 ; 499,2*  w.  in- 
fin., p.  310,  foot-note  1,  Volens  w. 


426 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


dat.  of  possess.,  387,  N.  3.  Increm. 
oivolo  and  compds.,  586,  1. 

Volucer^  decl.,  153,  N.  1,  1). 

Volucris^  p.  36,  foot-note  3. 

-volus,  compds.  in,  342,  1 ; compar., 
164. 

Votl^  constr.,  410,  III.,  N.  2. 

Vowels,  3,  I.  ; sounds,  5;  9 If . ; 15, 

I.  Classilication  of  vowel^  3,  I. 
Phonet.  changes,  20  If.  Vowels 
lengthened,  20  ; shortened,  21  ; 
weakened,  22 ; contracted,  23  ; 
changed,  24 ; assimilated,  25 ; dis- 
similated,  26;  dropped,  27;  inter- 
changed with  consonants,  28 ; 29. 
Variable  vowel,  20,  N.  2;  57,  2; 
58,  1,  2) ; 60,  1,  2)  ; 61,  1,  2). 
Favorite  vowels,  24.  Vowels  de- 
veloped by  liquids  or  nasals,  29,  N. 
Order  of  vowels  in  strength,  22. 
Themat.  vowel,  p.  94,  foot-note  1 ; 
251.  Vowel-stems,  compar,  of  adjs. 
in,  162,  N.  Final  vowel  elided, 
608,  I. ; shortened  in  hiatus,  608, 

II. ,  N.  3.  Quant,  before  two  con- 
sonants or  a double  cons.,  651. 

Vulgus^  deck,  51,  7 ; gend.,  53,  2. 
Vulpecula^  p.  159,  foot-note  1. 

-vus,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

W 

Want,  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  410,  V.,  1. 
Watches  of  night,  645,  1. 

Way,  adverbs  of,  305,  N.  2,  3). 

Weak  caesura,  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 


carl 


c 


Weakening  of  vowels,  22 ; diphthongs, 
23,  N. 

Weights,  Eoman,  646;  648. 

‘Wile,’  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398,  1, 

N.  2. 

Winds,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  I.,  2. 
Wishing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  535,  II. 
Without,  constr.  w.  verbs  of  being 
without,  414,  I. 

Women,  names  of,  649,  4. 

Words,  formation  of,  313  ff. ; deriva- 
tion, 321  If.  ; arrang.,  559  ff. 


X 

X,  sound,  13,  II. ; dropped,  36,  3,  N. 
2.  Decl.  of  nouns  in  a?,  64 ; 65,  3 ; 
91  ff. ; gend.,  105  ; 108.  X length- 
ens preceding  syllable,  576,  II. 

Y 

Y only  in  foreign  words.  2,  6 ; sound, 
5,  2 ; 10  ff.  Decl.  oi  nouns  in 
73  ; gend..  111.  Y or  y,  final,  580, 
I.  ; in  increments,  585. 

-ys,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  68,  2 ; 86 ; 

gend.,  107.  Ys  final,  580,  III. 

-yx,  -yx,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  97,  N.  2. 


Z 

Z only  in  foreign  words,  2,  6 ; length- 
ens preceding  syllable,  576,  II, 
Zeugma,  636,  II.,  1. 


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Gates’s  Latin  Word  Building 84 

Harkness’s  Arnold’s  First  Latin  Book 1 05 

Easy  Method  for  Beginners  in  Latin 1 20 

First  Year  in  Latin,  Complete  Course 1 12 

Latin  Exercises  for  the  First  Year 1 00' 

Introductory  Latin  Book 8'Z 

Elements  of  Latin  Grammar 8'Z 

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Introduction  to  Latin  Composition 1 05- 

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Second  Latin  Book  and  Reader 8Y 

Latin  Reader.  With  Exercises 1 05 

Harper  and  Burgess’s  Inductive  Latin  Method 1 GO 

Inductive  Latin  Primer.  {In  press.) 

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LATIN  TEXTS. 

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Bartholomew’s  Caesar’s  Gallic  War.  With  Vocabulary 90 

Butler  and  Sturgus’s  Sallust’s  Jugurtha  and  Catiline 1 22 

Crosby’s  Quintus  Curtius  Rufus 1 05 

Frieze’s  Quintilian.  Tenth  and  Twelfth  Books.  With  Notes,  1 20 
Vergil’s  A^neid.  Complete.  With  Notes  and  Dictionary. . 1 30 

Six  Books  of  jEneid,  Georgies,  and  Bucolics.  With  Notes 

and  Dictionary 1 30 

Vergil.  Complete  Works.  Notes  and  Dictionary 1 60  ~ 

Hanson’s  Preparatory  Latin  Prose  Book.  With  Vocabulary,  2 00 
Cicero’s  Orations  and  Letters.  With  Vocabulary 1 20 

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Harkness’s  Caesar’s  Commentaries.  New  ^Pictorial  Edition..  $1  20 

Caesar’s  Commentaries 1 05 

Cicero’s  Ora/tions.  With  Notes  and  Dictionary 1 22 

Course  in  Caesar,  Sallust,  and  Cicero.  (Preparatory) 1 40 

Sallust’s  Catiline.  With  Notes  and  Vocabulary 90 

Military  System  of  the  Romans 

Harper  and  Tolman’s  Caesar’s  Gallic  War.  With  Notes 

and  Dictionary. 1 20 

Harper  and  Miller’s  Virgil’s  Jjlneid.  (In  press.) 

Herbermann’s  Sallust’s  Jugurthine  War. 1 12 

Lincoln’s  Horace.  With  Notes 1 22 

Livy.  With  Notes 1 22 

Ovid.  With  Notes  and  Vocabulary 1 22 

Lindsay’s  Cornelius  Ncpos.  With  Notes  and  Vocabulary. . . 1 22 

Cornelius  Nepos  for  Sight  Reading 1 00 

Satires  of  Juvenal 1 00 

Lord’s  (John  K.)  Cicero’s  Laelius  de  Amicitia 72 

Searing’s  Virgil.  The  Ailneid,  Bucolics,  and  Georgies.  With 

Vocabulary.... '.  . 1 60 

Virgil’s  AEneid.  Six  Books.  With  Vocabulary 1 40 

The  same.  Books  I,  II,  and  VI,  with  Vocabulary.....  1 25 

Sewall’s  Latin  Speaker 80 

Thacher’s  Cicero  de  Officiis 87 

Tyler’s  Histories  of  Tacitus 1 22 

Germania  and  Agricola  of  Tacitus 87 


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